Building Materials as Criteria for Dating in Sydney and Environs from 1788: A Documentary Survey and Assessment of Dating Potential. [PhD] (2024)

OCR

Copyright in relation to this thesis"

Under the Copyright Act 1968 (several provisions of which are
referred to below), this thesis must be used only under the
normal conditions of scholarly fair dealing for the purposes of
research, criticism or review In particular no results or con-
clusions should be[...]t, nor should it be copied
or closely paraphrased in whole or in part without the writ-
ten consent of the author. Proper written acknowledgement
should[...]e obtained from this thesis.

Under Section 35(2) of the Copyright Act 1968 the ‘author of a
literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work is the owner of any
copyright subsisting in the work’. By virtue of Section 32(1)
copyright 'subsists in an original literary, dramatic, musical
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was an Australian citizen, an Australian protected person or a
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The Act, by Section 36(1) provides: ’Subject to this Act, the
copyright in a literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work is in—
fringed by a person who, not being the owner of the copyright
and without the licence of the owner of the copyright, does
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Section 31(1)(a)(i) provides t[...]es the exclu-
sive right to ‘reproduce the work in a material form’. Thus,
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right, reproduces or authorises the reproduction of a work, or
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unless the reproduction is a ‘fair dealing’ with the work ’for the
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Keith Jennings
Registrar

"Thesi[...]

ROBERT VICTOR JOHANNES VARMAN

mmwcmwn»

$\dw\2«Mo&efia\m

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Department of Historical Archaeology

University of Sydney

July 1986

Synopsis . . .
Abbreviations .
List of Illustrations .
Introduction . .

Chapter One : B[...]d Brick Sizes and Factors Restricting Size

TABLE OF CONTENTS

The London and British Brick Laws

S[...]Mechanization .

Notes .

Chapter Two : Gazetteer of Sydney Brickmakers 1788-ca.1956

Notes . .

Chapt[...]il Rods

Hand Wrought, or Forged, Process

Period of Decline
Machine Made Nails
The Machine Cut[...]

Nails and Nail Production in an Australian Context

1788—1802 . . . . .
1803-1810 . . . .
1811— 1851 . . .
Ewbank’s Patent (in Australia) . .
Wire Nails . . .
Local Production of Wire Nails . . .
Nail Forms and Functions . . .

Glossary of Nail Types and Terminology
Notes . . .

Chapter F[...]inations . . .

5. Chronological position
Summary of Major Categories

Bricks . . . . . . .
Nai[...]

I would like to thank those colleagues and ex—students who showed a kindly
interest in my work. I would also like to thank my many dear[...]eir
encouragement and tolerance, especially those of "Allen Street", Norfolk Island
and its Restoratio[...]uld like to record my appreciation for the honour of having received
several University of Sydney Postgraduate Scholarships and a Com[...]

This thesis explores the potential of building materials as criteria for dating
buildin[...]chaeological sites. It is believed that the study of past
human behaviour can not be reconstructed or[...]tools are available whereby past remains are set in a firm chronological framework

and, if possible, whereby the function and status of these remains can be identified.

The method adopted in this thesis is predominantly documentary, i.e. it
is based on the study of manuscripts, printed material and illustrations,[...]ary sources are the essential basis for any study
of European cultural remains in Australia. Ideally this approach would be combined
with the study of changes in form and material of the building materials themselves.
Such a study, however, would require detailed analysis of physical material from
as many accurately-dated s[...]period 1788 to the present,
another major thesis in itself. Even now few Australian sites have been e[...]hin them
and none have been adequately published. In these circumstances the decision
to begin by a thorough examination of relevant documentary sources itself, no
small und[...]evaluates the principal constructional categories of building

materials as to their dating potential in archaeological contexts.

It was originally intended to present the research and evaluation of each
category of building material in as much detail as the studies of bricks and nails
here presented. It early became evident that this was impractical in terms of
length. Two categories were thus selected for treatment in full and brief summaries
are included for the remaining principal categories.

In terms of geographic application this work has wider releva[...]environs
is to emphasize that no formulated sets of rules dating a structure on the basis
of its building materials can be universally applied[...]t to variation
arising from particular conditions in time and space.

R.V.J. Varman
July 1986

Building and Engineering Journal of Australia and New Zealand
Clay Products Journal of Australia

Historical Records of Australia

Historical Records of New South Wales

Mitchell Library

New Sou[...]

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Typical brickyard ca.1870 (Holterman Photographic Collection, ML,
A4999).

Scotch kiln in a 'bush' brickworks ca.1870. This was probably similar
to the scene at the brickfields in Sydney of the 1790s (Holterman
Photographic Collection, ML,[...]Foundry" (Bourry, fig.181).
Pug boy taking "pug" of clay to moulder's bench (Tomlinson, fig.235).

Covered moulder's bench, moulded bricks being stacked in hack barrow
(Tomlinson, fig.236).

Traditional wo[...]74, fig.1339).
Wooden brick mould showing details of construction (Bourry, fig-.77).

Wooden mould and[...]from brick mould.
Brick terminology.

Hack barrow of 26 bricks, each one on a pallet to avoid excessive handling
of the soft brick (Tomlinson, fig.238).

"Green" bricks being stacked in a hack. The bricks are slid off their pallet
onto[...]ne below. See Illustration
2 (Lionel Lindsay, Art in Australia, September 1925).

Abandoned scotch kiln, Mudgee, with fired bricks still stacked in kiln
(RVJV, Mudgee, 1977 II).

Elevation of clamp (Winser, fig.6).

41.

42.

43.

44.

45A—4SB.

46.

vi

One of many variations of a clamp (Bourry, fig.210).

Variations of the English clamp as experimented with in India since the
18205 (Spons', 1874, figs 1342—[...]uth Wales (early 18405), came
from the same batch of bricks the smaller one was overburned (RVJV,
1983).

A selection of some of the more unusual frogs of Sydney and New South
Wales (Warwick Gemmell Colle[...]arwick Gemmell Collection).

18205—18405 County of Cumberland bricks. The first and the third bricks
of 33 are of a later period (Warwick Gemmell Collection).

Tal[...]eat Exhibition Report [1851], vol.1, p.360).

One of the early H. Clayton's Extrusion Machines[...]

Ainslie's continuous machine, "one of the earliest" used for pipe making
(Spons' 1881, fig.487).

Ainslie's pipe making machine (D. Low, Elements of Practical Agriculture,
5th ed., 1847, p.263).

(T[...]5 Patent (Ure, 1853, figs 203—206).

Mr Roberts of Falmouth. This invention had little consequence b[...]0, figs 281 and 282).

Patent Brickmaking Machine of Messrs Bradley and Craven received
a Silver Medal in 1856 and appeared in H. Chamberlain' Catalogue of
1859, p.20. This machine was the first known to b[...]0).

Dry clay machine still using the round table of the 1856 machine (Clark,
1862, fig.240).

A later version of the above machine taken from an undated Bradley
a[...]o.1 and
No.2 machines were exported to many parts of Australia. (See No.66).

Bradley and Crave[...]

(Right) a simplified version in a housing (Spons‘ 1874, fig.1312).

Platt's dry[...]dry press (Clark, 1862, plate XXV)

(Right) plan of platt's dry press Machine (Spons', 1874, fig.1313[...]otch kiln ("The Kiln" Lionel Lindsay etching, Art in Australia, September
1925).

98. Section of a three flue scotch kiln with elaborate roofing ([...]ular kiln (Knight, fig.9.03).
101. Original shape of the Hoffman Kiln (Australian National Clay, Nov.1[...]t the detailed illustrations showing the changes

in the Hoffman Kiln as existed in Sydney during the 18805 and 18903
were not ready for the printing of this work.

102. G. Andina's proposed Sydney Work[...]A typical mid 19205 Brick Works (M.W. White, Art in Australia, March
1925).

104. Die for plinth bric[...]e "Stupid" was well known among Sydney brickyards of the 18805—19205
(Bourry, fig.67).

111. George[...]bricks from various places. Note Bradford/Balmain
in 113 (prob.18605). Note the Red Cross brick in 114 (Warwick Gemmell
Collection).

116. Rees' Book 3, Plate V of Iron Manufacture.

117. A Belgian workshop using[...]ds (Génart and Beatse, Les
Industries a Domicile in Belgique, Belgique, 1900).

118. Bealer, A.W. The Art of Blacksmithing, New York, 1976, p.207.
119. The fe[...]Tomlinson, fig.1490).
121. Another representation of Spencer's forge (Lardner, 1831, p.193).
122—123[...]orm nails with the grain running along the length of the
nails (for extra strength).

Messrs Wilmore[...]e trade mark from
late 18605.

US machine wrought of the mid to late nineteenth century, Wire and
Wire[...]ail, had superseded the patent wrought by ca.1870
in Australia (Axon, 1875, p26).

Parts of a rose headed wire nail.

Wire nail process of manufacture (R. Glader et al., "Nail Manufacture"[...]cture and Uses, London,
1891.

Wire nail machines in a Lysaght Brothers workshop. (Lysaght Bros and
Co. ltd., 50 Years of Progress, 1885-1935, p.22).

Common types of handforged nails made from nail rod iron.
Rose he[...], p.182).

(Bevan, p.34).

Common wire nail types of the 18605 to early 19005. Dates (approxima[...]

150. Cover of Royal Engineers' Recommended Nail List.

1[...]

lNTRODUC'l‘ION

“

The dating of undocumented sites in archaeology has traditionally rested
on a detailed understanding of such artefacts as tools, ceramics, metals etc. Ve[...]materials been employed to such ends; except (as
in Britain) as applied to very broad time spans such[...]h Royal patents were applied for. With the advent of the
Industrial Revolution records were being compiled by many secular sources, the
scope of which has expanded unabated to the present time. In stark contrast to
any period from prehistoric to late mediaeval times, the study of historical
archaeology of post—mediaeval times has access to a wide range of written, printed
and illustrated data. This data,[...]ed and analysed, can only be
ignored at the peril of understanding, and of developing of general and specific
principles of past human behaviour.

A documentary approach has been taken in this work because such a
background, catering specifically for colonial archaeology in Australia, is totally
lacking. Without such a foundation the analysis of fieldwork components can barely
be considered sound.

The question dealt with in this thesis is, when pared down to the essentials[...]is approach embodies the final word on the dating
of individual objects but rather offers a broad scope of possibilities which existed
during the period under study. The limitation of area, incorporated into the title
of this thesis, is intended as a caution, acknowledging the mutation-like effects
in the transference of skills from one area to another.~

An encyclopaedic opus does not constitute a thesis. In order to keep this
work to a manageable size, it was decided to select two of the most promising
building material categories, despite the fact that all of the major groups of building
materials had been researched. As[...]

to present brief summaries in order to illustrate the conditions and defences of
the thesis.

The basic tool of archaeology is to be able to date objects of all kinds; the
greater the number of datable objects, the greater will be the facility to establish
the chronologies of above and below surface features. Objects must al[...]e formulated about the nature,
function or status of a site. For example, it is useful to know that a[...]ing on corroborative evidence). Hence, a glossary of nail forms and functions
is included as an example of what could be achieved if glossaries were compile[...]s are stamped with names or initials, a gazetteer
of Sydney brickmakers is also included, again as an example of what could be
achieved in other categories (tiles, functional terracotta an[...]efore the 18405 and are
not common until the turn of the present century. Many mass produced objects
w[...]ological dating systems are generally constructed in the
absence of available documentation; if this technique could be integrated with
the thorough documentation of a particular object, a perfect chronological
morphology could be theoretically possible.

With the use of any system of dating there are many conditions before
assertion[...]when establishing a chronology based on the flow of technological development
originating from Great[...]logy
is the key which supplies a large proportion of raw materials depending on
transportation (stone, clay, lime etc.). A combination of the above determines
other raw materials,[...]

to allow for the free access of air and light, (though other factors may also be[...].

2. Skilled Tradesmen

The more skilled a group of specialists, the better the chance of a
sophisticated and enduring artifical environment. A very traditional, or stubborn,
group of craftsmen might actually delay the exploitation of natural resources
and site—specific conditions as much as a group of inexperienced labourers working
things out by tri[...]nsport

This aspect is often ignored but the lack of transportation can often delay
the establishing of a new technology or the distribution of its products. Cartage
was very expensive at any t[...]When machinery
for brick production became common in Sydney, for instance, it was decades before
country areas were able to follow suit, especially west of the Blue Mountains.
This latter example is clearl[...]the expected returns from a stamper battery, used in connection with goldmining,
compared to that of a brickmaking plant, made such machinery a good p[...]ame redundant when rail freight reduced the price of transporting bricks to

country areas where large[...]was poor and very expensive, only a large amount of capital
could overcome the problem of transport. The owners of such buildings as
Abercrombie House at Bathurst c[...]aterials as Welsh roofing slates
despite the cost of transportation, whereas even the moderatel[...]

6. Fashion in Design and Materials

This factor, because it is[...]l developents continually over time. The adoption
of technological advances often relied on capital, transport and population figures.

But designs in fashion were more easily adopted as they relied only on the skill
of the craftsman.

7. Chance

This covers all the ab[...]ew applied themselves to their skills and a flood of imported materials
and prefabrications entered the scene; the adoption of using bark slabs from the
Aborigines to co[...]

xvi

The following charts the likely progress of
traditional building technology, originally from[...]tion

I

Continual reinforcement from
UK bringing in the latest
improvements which are selected
accord[...]l
improvements are applied to suit
local variants of broader, mainly
English movements

I

Aust[...]

Fire bricks and some special forms of bricks were imported regularly into

Australia, t[...]would have
diminished their numbers.

This study of bricks has been divided under two main headings.[...]stralian. The division symbolizes the two aspects
of the Australian scene. First the transplanting of technology from the Home
Country, whether England[...]as time

progressed, and secondly the development of technology once it was established
in the Colony.

The details given are felt necesary[...]lysis.

British and Foreign

The Manual Processes of Brick Manufacturing

The manual process1 of brickmaking remained largely unchanged from late[...]imes to well into the twentieth century. A writer of the late 18505
wrote, "the history of bricks may be summed up in a few words — as our immediate
and despised for[...]t requisite for making bricks was to find an area of suitable brick
clay as close to a source of water and the site of a building as possible. Wilson
was of the opinion that there were few positions where b[...]tenacious and had a loamy character.4 The
bricks of strong earths tended to warp, shrink and c[...]

3K‘CK CLAN“

.Z + WAEQL

Scotch kiln in a ‘bush' brickworks ca.1870. This was probably similar
to the scene at the brickfields in Sydney of the 17905 (Holterman
Photographic Collecti[...]

Much of the labour in brickmaking was performed in the open air. Sheds
with only a roof were used by moulders to protect them from the effects of the
rain and the sun.

In the shed were located the moulding table, usually[...]erhaps some wire. At the ready
were also a number of brick, or 'hack',barrows.31

When the moulder was ready, the "pug boy" cut pieces from the heap ofof the moulder.32 In some yards the clay was
wheel barrowed to the bench,33 in such a yard sufficient clay for 30-60 bricks
was[...]time.34

The moulding box was most commonly made of a hardwood, (oak, mahogany
etc.), but by the 1840[...]ore out too quickly and lining
prolonged the life of the mould, and allowed the brick to slip o[...]

6.

"1:35. "5-.be

Pug boy taking "pug" of clay to moulder’s bench (Tomlinson, fig.235).

Covered moulder's bench, moulded bricks being stacked in hack
barrow (Tomlinson, fig.236).

The size of the mould was calculated to allow for shrinkage d[...]ious authorities on how to achieve
the ideal size of brick differed from source to source, reflecting[...]911: x 4% x 32}
inches to achieve a "proper size" of brick of 9 x 4% x 3 inches.45 Wilson confirmed
this shrink[...]an inch longer and
wider and deeper by a quarter of an inch46 but did not specify the size of resultant
brick. An authority, who published advice to prospective immigrants in 1854
recommended that moulds should measure 10 x[...]h
larger than the desired brick;48 another put it in terms of a percentage, between
eight and ten per cent.49

After the mould was cleaned and sanded and the surface of the moulding
table sprinkled with sand, the mould[...]im and pushing it away, working it with the palms of his hands: the
"clot" of clay was roughly formed into the shape of a brick.51 The clot was then
drawn forcibly into the prepared mould and the clay was well pressed in so as

8. Wooden brick mould showing details of construction (Bourry, fig.77).

9. Wood[...]

In order that the bricks would not warp during stacking in the hacks, the
bricks were first dried on the ground and then hacked.61 In the case of very soft
green bricks, these had to be taken fro[...]om place to place, mostly depending on the degree of quality
desired and the manpower available. In a very good yard, a drying "floor", or drying
ground, was prepared on a high and open piece of ground. The foundations of the
hacks were prepared by creating earthen "beds" 50 yards or more in length running
in a north—south direction to ensure equal distribution of sunshine to either sides
of the hack. The beds were two feet wide and[...]

The bricks were arranged on the beds in low walled rows called hacks.
Sometimes, as menti[...]rden a little on
the drying floor before hacking. In other cases the bricks were laid out along the
ha[...]od
appears to have been to not place the next row of bricks on the hack until the
previous row had suf[...]wide, leaving
a small space between the two rows. In larger yards these were placed on the
earthen beds, as described; in small or country yards they were placed on a flat,
well drained, piece of ground. The favoured height for the hacks appears to have
been eight tiers high. Accounts of the stacking methods vary considerably.
Archaeological evidence found in Sydney and elsewhere in Australia suggests that
the bricks were arranged[...](and were then presumably restacked when hardened in a scintled
arrangement with wide spaces. The latter is supported by an Australian account
of 188955 and some earlier English accounts.67 The 1[...]acing and skintling would allow for the free flow of air when
the bricks were more stable. The drying[...]eing ready
for firing.68 After the initial drying in the later nineteenth century, the bricks
were sometimes raised in higher tiers of between 12 or 13, but this was probably
due to th[...]ne moulded (less water and more dense).69

Whilst in the hacks, the bricks needed to be protected from[...]rom
drying’out too quickly. The earliest method in England for protecting the hacks

If a group of bricks can be found from the same batch, nearly all the phases
of its manufacture may be found, if viewed collectiv[...]d puddling process, though
some stones were found in the clay; evidence of gritty sand on the surface of
the brick, a result of the sand stock process; a fixed position governme[...]a
stock board fixed on a moulding table was used in conjunction with the mould;
a range of fine and deep broad arrow marks to quite wide and deep marks, revealing
a gradual build up of clay around a probably fine broad arrow fixed on[...], mostly fine but some large where tiny fragments of stone were
dragged across the surface, lengthways along the face of the brick (always opposite
to the broad arrow mark), the result of wooden strike used to scrape excess clay
from the top of the mould; a slightly raised horizontal band along one side of the
bricks, revealing a differential expulsion rate from the mould; a flattening of
the broad arrow face of the brick, the result of flipping the brick from the mould
onto the pallet; thumb or finger marks on the sides or faces of the brick, the result
of handling whilst the brick was till soft; depressions on the sides of the bricks,
the width of a brick, evidence of stacking in the hack whilst the brick was too
soft; distinct[...]ss impressions on the long, or "stretcher", sides of
some bricks, the result of initial stacking on the ground where perhaps hay/[...]covering or used to keep the bricks off the dirt
of the ground; possum and cat footprints on the long, or stretecher, sides of the
newly formed bricks, indicating that the bric[...]night; distinct pockmarks on the stretcher sides of bricks, evidence that rain
had fallen on the unprotected hack; outlines of a reddish colour without depressions,

Once the bricks had dried completely, the bricks were ready for firing. There
were two methods of firing bricks, by kiln and by "clamp burning".

K[...]ommon, bricks were simple constructions. The type
of kiln used for simple brick burning, since the construction of the first kilns in
Sydney, was a type known as the "Scotch", box, or[...]bricked up after
the "green" bricks had been set in place inside the kiln and was demolished at
the completion of the firing and cooling.77 There were three to fou[...]"fire holes", opposite to each other at each side of the kiln. The top of the
kiln, which was not permanently closed was co[...]setting and the initial burning was taking place, in later
years iron sheeting was used.78 The walls were made about three feet thick and
made of old or rejected bricks, stone or a combination of both. The material was
bonded in clay, as lime mortar would disintegrate in the heat.79 In some cases
the kiln floor was sunk about four feet below ground level.80

The bricks were stacked in the kiln with considerable skill, this process wa[...]g the kiln". It must be admitted that the setting of the kiln varied
from one brickmaker to another. O[...]d was as follows: the
firing area was at the base of the kiln and to construct this area, rows of bricks
were laid two or three bricks wide along the length of the kiln, intervals of two
bricks were left vacant between the rows. The rows of bricks were built at least
six or eight courses h[...]ight and dry brushwood for kindling;
then a layer of larger brushwood cut into short lengths we[...]

Illustration 2 (Lionel Lindsay, Art in Australia, September 1925).

V (We‘lkllu[...]

then finally logs of split strong burning timbers were placed on top.[...]filled up, the arching was commenced; each course of bricks was
made to cantilever one and a half inches beyond the course below it to the extent
of about five courses in height which coincided with the fire holes. The s[...]he arching were then filled with timber. The ends of the bricks were made
to touch each other but .narrow spaces were left between the sides of the bricks
which were always on their sides, this[...]el throughout the
kiln. The bricks were organized in units of "three upon three" which was the rule
of brickmakers; each course was reversed in direction for stability. The main
setting occurred above the arching, (in more sophisticated kilns, this arching was
a permanent feature) and the bricks arranged in the manner described until the
top of the kiln. The top course was laid with bricks placed flat, each brick covering
a part of three others, the process being known as "platting".81 The top of the
kiln was temporarily covered in order to protect the green bricks from the rain
a[...]heat. Spons' 1874 edition illustrates a kiln set in this manner.82

In some kilns a "deadman", or solid wall of brick, was built in the centre
of the kiln to ensure that the heat rose in the kiln, rather than travel from one
fire hole to another.83

The general size of the Scotch kiln in England seem to vary little. The
consistency of some of the figures for kiln sizes ranging from the 18405[...]and 12 feet high, holding 20,000 bricks.84 Spons' of 1874 gives the same figures
but it is obvious fro[...]borrowed heavily from the earlier account.85
Ure, in the 1853 edition, gave the average size as 13 x 1[...].87 A mid nineteenth century
account, republished in 1880, offered 13 x11 x 2.83 Each account, however,
maintained that the kiln would hold 20,000 bricks; a kiln of this capacity was
considered to be an "ordinary kiln".89 The thickness of the kiln walls vary in the
several accounts from "very thick"90 to one f[...]walls
inclined inwards as they approached the top of the kiln, hence the walls were
generally t[...]

The usual fuel used in Scotch kilns was wood. Timber shavings, light brushwood
etc., was used for kindling.93 In Australia timber was almost exclusively used
in the Scotch kilns, even up to fairly recent times.94

The kindling in the arched flues were set alight after the door o[...]oles were also bricked up to prevent the
entrance of air. This slow fire was kept up for about three d[...]ing the fire holes occasionally to allow some air in and to ad
more fuel; these were then blocked up o[...]e bricks were sufficiently burned when the arches of the fire hole flue turned
white and fire appeared ("gets up") at the top. A kiln holding 35 courses of bricks
was expected to sink about nine inches. Up[...]n until the bricks could
be removed.95 Variations in the burning process, as in all other aspects of this
topic, were numerous.96

The door or doors w[...]great hardness and perhaps
even vitrified; those in the middle were well burned; those at the top wer[...]ion.97 As the outside walls absorbed
a great deal of the heat, bricks adjacent to them were often foun[...]as well. The under—burned bricks were generally of a salmon colour
and were large and relatively soft; well burned bricks were generally of a deep
red colour; and over-burned bricks were small, very hard, and of a deep purple
colour, often partially glazed or vitrified.98

The Scotch kilns had a high degree of waste bricks due to the poor equal
heat distribution. An efficient early twentieth century Scotch kiln in England
was reported to have had an 84 per[...]

an
i
1
LJ‘

47mm».

21. One of many variations of a clamp (Bonn-y, fig.210).

Clamp-burning was an alternative method of firing bricks with the advantage
that a permanent[...]Clamp-burning was not considered a primitive
form of firing bricks, as it remained the common practice in the London area
until at least the 18705103 and was still used in the traditional brickyards there
and the south of England into the 153305.104 The method used in these areas,
however, involved mixing the fuel, "breeze", with the clay of the brick to burn
them.105 If this method was ever used with clamps in Sydney, it did not occur
until after about 1850.106

In England, during Tudor times, most of the bricks produced were of the
clamp-burned variety. The clamp was set up an[...]nally to fire the bricks.107 This method survived in British country areas
and the British colonies we[...]108 It was also the chief clamp
method to be used in New South Wales.109 In later years, especially in the south
of England, breeze, or ash, was mixed in with the clay, constituting the bulk of
the fuel to burn the bricks. Layers of breeze were added between the bricks and
flues we[...]method was calculated to waste about 60 per cent of the
heatuo One burning of a clamp could take from two to six weeks, the lon[...]g as it was not overheated).111

The construction of a clamp varied greatly in detail but were similar in
principle. A foundation of a layer or two of previously burned bricks was established
to prote[...]or flues, also called "liveholes",
were arranged in this foundation which ran the length and breadth of the clamp.
The flues contained fuel and the green[...]nished to three bricks thick at the top. A number
of walls, or "necks", of three bricks thick were built to either side, each neck
diminished in height the further they were placed from the cent[...]mped that openings were left for feeding the fire in every direction. The interior
bricks were "scintled", or spaced, to allow for the ciruclation of heat; those on

the outer side of the clamp were "close bolted", or laid as[...]

Burnt “in. Wood at. Julnyom', X‘lnu of Chulnlls.[...]mps a bricks flnL

Ground Plan similar (0 (In! of Fig. 1343,

22 P'LAN

GRO[...]

The temperature throughout the clamp wa[...]ve—holes
were overburned and often ran together in masses, called "burrs". Those in the
centre of the clamp were sometimes partly vitrified and sma[...]or second rate housing.115 Great
skill was needed in order to proportion the amount of fuel to the size of the clamp,
a slip in judgement sometimes rendered the whole clamp underburned or
overburned.118

In Sydney, the very first bricks, (produced either by Samuel Wheeler or John
King) must have been fired in clamps. The rejects of the first burnings were probably
used in building the first brick kiln. Structures built of clamp—burned bricks may
be recognized by the variety of colours of the bricks and the variety of brick sizes,
the largest are usually soft and ver[...]ark vitrified bricks were used to create patterns in walls.

Recorded Brick Sizes and Factors Restricting Size

It is thought necessary to review some of the main trends surrounding the
brick trade in Britain because British methods and traditions we[...]ettlers and new
information arrived. Some aspects of brickmaking have already been reviewed
but the pr[...]s and duties are often mentioned when the subject of brickmaking
is dealt with.117 The relevance of the brick laws and duties have but one indirect
application to the Colonies at best, as the Laws in London and Britain did not
extend to Ireland or the British colonies. Bricks made in Britain which were intended
for export wer[...]

An enquiry was ordered by the Hous[...]on the
21st March 1725.

The Report to the House of Commons revealed that the opinions, even of
the experts varied. The Committee decided that the best size for bricks was
9 x 41': x 2—3/4 inches. One of the Committee reported that bricks made generally[...]that several were found to measure below 8 inches in length.
The faction promoting the 8% x4 or 4% x21[...]cks should be dug and
turned over between the 1st of November and February, and that moulding should
begin early in March. They wished to restrict the amount of "Spanish", or ash,
in the bricks and that the Corporation of Tilers and Bricklayers should be empowered
to regulate the brick trade within a 15 mile radius of London.123 The Bill received
the Royal Assent on[...], the duty being three shillings
per thousand.127 In 1794 the duty was increased to four shillings.128 In 1803 the
duty was increased to five shillings for every brick made under 10 x 5 x 3 inches
in Britain, those exceeding those dimensions were re[...]with smoother or polished sides attracted a rate of
twelve shillings per thousand.129 In 1805 the duty on bricks and tiles was incr[...]

According to The Builder in 1843, the upper limit of 10 x5 x3 referred
to green bricks (as they were a[...]ying according to the material"
and that the size in London would be a fraction less, especially in the length.132
The upper limit quoted in 1803 appears to have been due to brickmakers making
extra large bricks in order to avoid duty.”3 The extra large bricks w[...]laying; also the length had to be twice the width of the brick or else it could
not be bonded properly, (for example in the case of English and Flemish bonds);
and the weight could[...]d the thickness about half the width,135 (a third of the length).

In 1803 "common" and "dressed" bricks were also distinguished for the purpose
of imposing extra duty.136 This effectively stifled[...]unted before burning
and any failure could result in a spectacular loss of money.137 Moulded bricks
became too expensive and[...]architects and builders followed their example.

In 1835, the duty on bricks was raised to five shill[...]d to the duty on common
bricks to apply to bricks of all kinds in 1839. The general duty was seen as a boom
to manufacturers who wished to produce bricks of moulded patterns. Little came
of these hopes because moulded bricks were expensive to produce and any failures
in experiments required duty.139

Despite the duty, the number of bricks produced increased dramatically
between about 1820 and 1850. In 1821, duty was paid on 899,178,510; in 1840 the
number had increased to 1,677,811,134; and in 1849 the figure had reached
1,800,000,000, producing a revenue of 600,000 pounds.”0 In order to lessen the
effect of the duty brickmakers appear to have made shortcuts in production,
diminishing the quality of their bricks.141 The 1840S saw a great increase of interest
in the invention of brickmaking machines. This interest even extended to members
of the nobility, such as the Marquis of Tweedale,1‘12 and the Earl of Lovelace.143
The approach of the Great Exhibition of 1851 may have had an influence on the

The Act to repeal the brick duty wa[...]and speculation that even the
rectangular nature of the brick would be abandoned, practically nothing had come
of it by 1857,146 though the following decades were[...]o brick sizes are quite rare for any period, some of the
measurements of those mentioned in the various Acts have been presented opposite.
Often dimensions are quoted in twentieth century secondary sources but in almost
every case with little or no foundation can be found for them.147

Wilson mentioned that in England the size of bricks were determined by
law, "and no man can ma[...]ittle more than a recommendation. For the purpose
of the duty in 1784 and as a regulating factor for the quality of bricks, a minimum
size was given of 8’} x4 x 2%. In 1803, a maximum was given for green bricks
(10 x 5 x 3) instead of a minimum, to deter people from avoiding duty by[...]ng blocks to avoid duty. Wilson, a little further in his account states
that the standard London brick[...]ding the size required by the London
Building Act of 1839,149 being 8—3/4 x 4-1/8 x 2% and of 1774,150 being
8—3/4 x 4 x 22‘: inches[...]

there were two other factors which were involved in determining the size of the
brick apart from the mould, namely, the type of clay or clay mix used and the
various temperature[...]firing.

Measurements quoted after the abolition of the brick duty also tend to dispel
any idea of a standard size.

Tomlinson, who published in 1851, wrote that English bricks were "commonly
of one form", 9 x4% x2% inches.151 (This size probably represents an average
size of the 18405 and before.) An account published three[...]te that the width is exactly
half the length.)153 In 1858 brickmakers from Birmingham and the Midlands[...]icks. It had been noted that some bricks
produced in the area measured as much as 9—5/8 x 4—3/4 x[...]akers
resolved to "firmly carry out the principle of making only one uniform size of
brick”,155 which seems to suggest that the word "restrict" was meant to denote
an absolute size. The depth of three inches for the Midlands size was the thicke[...]regulation" size to that time and is more typical of the later Hoffman
size.156 One source stated that the minimum size of a brick should be
8—7/8 x 4—5/16 x 2—5/8 in[...]—7/8 x 2-11/16
inches.157 Knight, who published in 1878 wrote that the English "regulation" size
was 8% x 4 x 2% inches.158

Brick sizes also differed in various localities. As seen above, the Midlands
m[...]ll/16.159 Winser noted that the traditional brick of the north of
England was 3 inches thick, whilst that of the south tended to 2-5/8 inches.160

As can be s[...]ly was no absolute traditional or regulation size
in either time or place. A regulation size would hav[...]lamp or Scotch kiln fired bricks anyway. Accounts of brick
sizes should be viewed with caution, for example in one yearly publication, the
same list was[...]

under 8 x 4'} x 2}

(London[...]

Stock brick developments in England after the 18705 are irrelevant to
developments in the Sydney region and Australia in general. The last major impact
on brickmakers which may have modernized aspects of the Antipodean traditions
probably occurred during the 18505 with the great influx of immigrants and new
ideas. The introduction of fully mechanized brick production in the Sydney region
virtually wiped out the traditi[...]ransformation was largely due to the availability
of money during the boom years of the 18805 and the almost universal use of stucco,
which of course hid the brickwork.’The introduction of the Queen Anne style,
later called the "Federatio[...]and Craft" school and Queen Anne revivals did so in Britain):165 instead,
efforts were concentrated o[...]five and six pounds.166 Knight
suggested a weight of about seven pounds or a little less.167 Various factors, of
course, varied the weight of a brick, such as size, ingredients168 and even the
method of moulding. The slop moulding process was supposed to increase the weight
of a brick by one pound.169

28

29

27—29.

A selection of some of the more unusual frogs of Sydney and New
South Wales (Warwick Gemmel[...]

Frogs

Frogs, are indentations, or depressions, on one of the broad sides of a brick.
In England, they were being produced from about 1690[...]g out a slot with a finger.”1 The common method of forming
a frog was to attach a rectangular piece of wood called a "kick" to the stock
board. The frog[...]made
by the striker (as this is done over the top of the mould, the kick up of the stock
board being at the base). Cox noted that in England during the later eighteenth
century, frog[...]unded corners, measuring approximately six inches in length, two and a
half inches in width and a half to one inch in depth.”2

The purpose of the frog was chiefly to form a key for the mortar[...]nd lay. Other writers'
believed that the creation of a frog hardened the core of the brick and counteracted
a tendency to swell and secured the horizontal line of the edges.175 The frog
probably assisted better over all burning as well. The advantages or otherwise
of the frog were still being debated during the 1920[...]time to make
bricks with a hollow underneath".177 In New South Wales they are almost non
existent befo[...]but are common from the 18503 onwards. Frog marks
in New South Wales come in a myriad of shapes, rectangles, ovals, circles, hearts,
diamonds, spades, clubs, miniature footprints, heel shapes etc., in all variations,
sizes and even multiple fo[...]

33

34

32-34. 1820918405 County of Cumberland bricks. The first and the third
bricks of 33 are of a later period (Warwick Gemmell Collection).

Impressions, such as the name or initials of a brickmaker, were sometimes
included on bricks. Sometimes the initials or name of a property or a property
owner were marked on bri[...]eft. These impressions were placed on
a broadside of the brick, most often in a fixed position, (the letters being fixed
on the stock board or kick of the stockboard), but were sometimes stamped on
after moulding which resulted in a varying position from brick to brick.

In New South Wales and Tasmania during the 18205 and[...]The arrow varied a great deal but was most often in a fixed position. The broad
arrow does not necess[...]ally found on bricks, these are
mostly the result of careless handling. Only in rare cases were finger or thumb
impressions used[...]should have a deliberate appearance, usually seen in rows on a_stretcher,
side of a brick.”9

Initials and names are often useful in dating if the history of a brickmaker,
factory, landowner etc., is known. Machine made bricks in later years were
sometimes advertised along with details of their various names or letters, especially
in the case of fire bricks.180

Accidental impressions were also sometimes left on bricks which reveal
aspects of the brickmaking process, such as impressions left by stacking the bricks
in the hacks, uneven burning marks left by stacking or position in the kiln or clamp.
Some bricks may accidentally record something of the flora and fauna of the area,
for example; impressions left by stacking on the ground, leaving the outlines of
plants; footprints of animals are sometimes found; etc. Some idea of the weather
when the brick was formed may[...]

Iron oxide found in most clays render the traditionally made stock bricks
a reddish colour. Impurities, or the inclusion of certain minerals and organic
material may modify the colour of the brick. The Scotch, updraught, kiln and
especially clamp burning, produced a great variety of colours ranging from light
to deep reds to glazed[...]se colours produced by vitrification. The colours
in this instance depended on the position of the brick in the kiln, or actually the
degree of heat at which brick was fired. The colours could be modified by intensity
or length of firing181 but this was a risky business as the whole batch of bricks
could be rendered useless by over or underfiring. However, between the years
of the brick tax, 1784 and 1850, very little experimentation occurred because
any failure in the kiln was a loss of duty, the brickmaker was required to pay duty
on[...]ry could not be exploited
to their full potential in colour because of the relatively "crude" methods of
firing.183 As in New South Wales, the same method produced varieties of red
and purple-blue vitified bricks. Timber tended to be the main fuel used in eighteenth
century England but in Sydney and New South Wales it was almost universal until
the 18505 (and in country areas up to the 1940s or 1950s). The use of timber as
fuel tended to produce a high percentage of vitrified bricks, possibly because
of the intensity of the fire in the fines and because of the production of potash
in the burning.184 If special hues were required for[...]pecially selected at the kiln. The switch to coal in nineteenth century
Britain and large urban areas in Australia reduced the incidence of vitrified
bricks.185 Thus the only colours available in eighteenth century England were
reds and purples, though a yellow brick had been developed in the London area
toward the end of the century.186 In Sydney reds and purples would have been
the prime[...]d after this
period were spotted by the inclusion of some organic material and purples became
very rar[...]s began to be made by the 1870s.
The introduction of patent kilns for common bricks had a bleaching result on the
brick clay, but careful firing and control of air in a patent kiln could enhance
the potential of the clay with calculated inclusions of special clays and minerals.

In England, Robert Salmon in 1807 experimented with clay and sand
proportions. The increasing proportions of sand above a proportion of one measure

of sand to two or three of clay produced soft brick or poor colour.187 British
brickmakers had a greater variety of clays and fuels than had brickmakers of
the Sydney area. One authority who wrote in 1845, mentioned that bricks were
made of, "clay, marl, and loam, in all their variety, with the different admixture
of breeze, chalk, small coke, etc."188 Clay there was basically silica and alumina
with a small quantity of lime and "occasionally a magnesia and alkali". In colour
the clays were red, yellow, blue, greenish[...]g fired but sand was needed to hold the particles
of clay together. Chalk was added to sandy clay as a[...]breeze, or cinders189 was needed as the particles
of such a brick easily transmitted the heat of the kiln. "Malm", or "marl" bricks
were made from a light clay with a natural proportion of limestone (or chalk)190
but sand and breeze neede[...]hten the colour to an off—white. A mistake made
in the proportions of any of the above materials could result in a useless product.”1
As the 1845 writer explain[...]at that time, were poorly
understood and the want of proper mixing or puddling, resulted in very imperfect
bricks. Though the heavy brick dut[...]to experiment or spend too much time on any part of the brickmaking process.

The late 18405 was a period of experimentation on a modest scale which
led to mechanically controlled production resulting in the use of polychromatic
brickwork from the late 18505.192 Polychromatic brick work began to be seen
during the 187 Us in Sydney but was developed to a high degree in Melbourne between
the 18705 and 18905. The initia[...]ace with the manually produced
brick but the bulk of the development of polychromatic brickwork in Australia
relied on the development of machinery and special kilns.

Machine Made Bricks

Machinery made an enormous impact on brick production in Sydney during
the 18803, virtually wiping out the manual process within a decade. In Britain
the introduction of machinery began at an earlier date but it did not displace
the manual process suddenly, as in urban Australia. There were many traditional
brickyards in urban British areas well into the 19305 an[...]

that machinery had been applied to brickmaking in the mid—185115.194 By 1874
Spons was pessimisti[...]few are at present at work.195

A complete study of brickmaking machines deserves the space of a large
volume to deal with the subject adequately. As this study pertains to objects used
in building, the exact method of production is important only to the extent that
the method employed affects the end product. In the production of nails, it is
important because these changed regularly over a long period of time, affecting
the product at every change. With the production of bricks, there were about
three or four basic types of machine principles, each of which produced an instantly
recognizable object.[...]achines were so basic that some machines remained
in production for over seventy years in some instances.195 Once the machine
process is kn[...]be known are the brick
moulds used and the manner in which the bricks were fired. Almost nothing was
r[...]provided with moulds producing any shape
and size of brick and some machines could be converted to mak[...]pug
mills and by 1840 was the most common machine in use.198 Later rollers, grinding
pans and toothed rollers were used.199

Very little is known of the early patents. One of the earliest which was not
simply a press in which hand moulded bricks were re—pressed, was the Lyne and
Stainford patent of 1825. This patent milled the clay and five moulds[...]but later machines were to develop the principle of pugging
and brickmaking in one machine. However, machines of the 1820s and 18305 were
little more than mechanized moulds.201 By the end of the 18305 the first practical
machines were being[...]ion that these machines were rather a consequence of the development
of the tile, or drain tile, machines. Drain tiles an[...]g these machines. There was also
a great interest in draining swamps from the 18205 to the 1850[...]

such as Low's Elements of Practical Agriculture, illustrated the type of the tile
most favoured which was a tile in the shape of a long barrel vaulted arch, a flat
tile formed th[...]202 This Ainslie
machine had a pug mill and a set of rollers to process the clay ready for
moulding.203 Low's mentioned in the 5th edition (1847) that the machine had been[...]d".204 Earlier machines, such
as Robert Beart’s of 1833 or before, extruded slabs which were then given the
barrel vault shape manually on a "horse". A number of brickyards and private
individuals were using the Beart machines by the early 18405. The Marquis of
Tweeddale had advertised his patent tile machine[...]achine which could form "a complete draining tile
in one operation".20'7 The Tweeddale Patent Drain Tile and Brick Company
announced in 1843 that their attention had been drawn "to the great importance
of extending it [the drain tile machine] to the making of bricks".208

Tweeddale simply converted the principle of the basic drain tile machine,
working on the extr[...]thought
necessary to use moulds for the formation of the article".209

Extrusion Wire Cut Brickmaldng Machinery

The clay was extruded out of the Tweeddale machine, like toothpaste emerging
out of a tube, the length and breadth of a brick but like a long slab. The slab was
conver[...]"cut off" individually,
judging by the appearance of the machine. One of the first, or perhaps the first
wire cutting bric[...]a wire frame was demonstrated by a William
Erving in 1841 but some clays were too resistant to[...]

9 u E 9 2, 33 fl 3

N5

V

38.

One of the early H. Clayton’s Extrusion Machine[...]

in improving the accessories of brickmaking.

By early 1873, Claytons were offeri[...]d catalogues with prices,
free by post. The range of products had expanded considerably, they o[...]

Although Ainslie's machines had[...]ommended by such agricultural authorities as Low (in 1847).238

For ”double pressed facing bricks, wire cuts were often placed in a hand or
mechanized press for extra compression[...]mould where clay was poured and stamped into it,
in some cases plungers applied great pressure to the top of the mould and in the
more advanced machines pressure was applied to both the top and bottom of a
mould.

As mentioned earlier, this class of machine was the first to be developed.
The first[...]ed moulds where the clay was poured
into a series of moulds.253 In the 1825 patent of Messrs Lyne and Stainford, a
series of five plungers mederately compressed the clay once[...]ricks appear to have cancelled
out the advantages of mechanical production.

Maintaining these machines was also a problem. The problem of drying had
been partially solved by the borrowing of the extrusion technique used for making
drain til[...]r lose shape as they emerged from the die opening of
the machine. The early successes led to the predominance of extrusion wire cut
brick machines, during the 18405 and 1850s. It had been recognized in 1843 that
attmepts at mechanizing the brickmaking[...]ques.255 There was little
doubt about the success of the wire cut brick but its limitations wer[...]

Mr Roberts of Falmouth. This invention had little conseq[...]

Messrs Lyne and Stainford's 1825 patent must have sustained interest in
the moulding process as it appeared in all of Ure's editions from 1853 to 1878.256
As with the later, 1835, patent of Edward Jones the clay descended into a series
of moulds257 but had the advantage of having a series of plungers to compact
the clay. The theoretical result of the Lyne and Stainford patent was that the
compression resulted in a strong, well-compacted, heavier and well formed[...]qualities which were desired but with a reduction in drying time,
(which had resulted in great losses before stiff clay could be managed b[...]ents
which moulded bricks but the most successful of these was that of R. Bradley,
later known as Bradley and Craven.

Bradley and Craven

R. Bradley and Company of Wakefield, exhibited a brickmaking machine
in the Great Exhibition of 1851 which could mould bricks "of various sizes and

shapes".260 Although interest in hollow, perforated and variously shaped bricks
had begun in ernest during the late 18405, it was not until the repeal of the brick
tax in 1850 that brickmakers could afford to experiment with the manufacture
of special bricks. The fashion by 1851 was to exploi[...]ct or to improve moisture control and ventilation in
brickwork.

Brickmaking machines of the 18503 were almost invariably of the extrusion
wire cut type. The bricks that thes[...]uthpiece. Bricks for engineering purpose5254 were
in high demand but it was found that the wire[...]

Patent Brickmaking Machine of Messrs Bradley and Craven received
a Silver Medal in 1856 and appeared in H. Chamberlain' Catalogue
of 1859, p.20. This machine was the first kno[...]

63. A later version of the above machine taken from an undated Br[...]

a name well known in brickmaking circles throughout the world.

Bradle[...]he clay was forcibly pressed into moulds arranged in a circular revolving
table, piston rods forced the bricks upwards out of their moulds. Depending on
the clay and horse pow[...]rocess. By the late 18505 it was largely
employed in the manufacture of fire and "metallic" bricks which could not be
done with machines of the wire process. It was claimed that the stiff c[...]breeze, ashes etc.,
as was the traditional custom in London. The machine could also produce perforated
bricks at a small extra cost of purchasing special moulds.263

One of these machines at least had been sent to Australi[...]ussia and Holland.234 The machine was
illustrated in Ure's Cyclopedia between 1860 and 1878,265 and also Knight's (USA),
publication of 1878.256

A development of the above machine led to the creation of the "Dry—clay
Brick—making Machine"267 which[...]8 With variations, this machine was the prototype of the great Bradley
and Craven machines used all over the world by the last two decades of the
nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century. The machine
processed clay direct from the clay quarry without the admixture of water and
after pulverization was delivered into a pair of moulds, part of a series of pairs
arranged on a revolving circular table, the clay was then subjected to strong
pressure by the work of pistons. Larger versions were available which could impart
pressure on both the top and bottom of the brick, compacting the brick
throughout.269

Publications brought to the attention of engineers the virtues of the Bradley

and Craven machines which cou[...]

dry clay. The simplicity of parts and the strength of the machine were considered
to be the main characteristics of the machine,”0 which was a real consideration
because breakdowns were common in brickmaking machines of the nineteenth
century and complicated machines w[...]oduced accessories for the brickmaking
trade. One of their "Clay Crushing Roller and Breaker" machines[...]hibition (Melbourne), 1888. They produced a range of these
crushers so that difficult or stoney clays[...]. Without further information, little can be said of these machines.
All the machines were variations of the last mentioned machine which appeared
in Clark's catalogue of machinery displayed in the International Exhibition of
1862. The circular revolving table with the series of depressed moulds principle
dated back to the 1856[...], except that the moulds were arranged
vertically in relation to the centre point instead of lengthways along the perimeter.
The 1862 machine had a central main gear in the centre, requiring a strong frame
over the machine. By 1869 the "modern" type, familiar in later illustrations and
surviving examples, had been developed as seen in their "No.1" and "No.2"
machines.273

Judging by[...]time from the revolving table which had a series of single
mould boxes. This machine was used for the "best class of pressed facing bricks.275
It appears that this ma[...]rey Chamberlain (agent and
brick machine inventor of Kempsey, Worcester), Chamberlain's brick presses[...]ciated with Bradley and Craven'sZ77 machines. One of Bradley and
Craven's "plastic brickmaking" machin[...]were sent
out to a "Lloyd Taylor Esq., Australia" in 1878.278 In all other respects the No.1
machine resembled the[...]. A No.1 was displayed at the Adelaide
Exhibition of 1887.

and No.2 machines were exported to many parts of Australia. (See
No.66).

The No.3 in basic outline and general principle appears to date, in type,
to the early 18603 and was probably displayed in the 1862 International Exhibition,
one was instal[...]ed that the No.1
and No.2 machines were developed in principle and basic outline by the close of
the 18603.282 These two models were also at work by 1890 in the Roundwood
Brick Works. At the Works a shale (as became the case in Sydney from the 18805
to the present time) was us[...]en
and two others were associated with Mr Hoffman in the patent for the kiln.283
Actually, the brickworks of Bradley and Craven were a prototype for many set[...]up Limited,284 have had
representatives or agents in Australia since the Adelaide Exhibition of 1887 to
the present day. The first representative was James Horsley Craven, son of the
founder, John Craven. James H. Craven settled in Australia, selling new and
secondhand brickmaking machinery until his death in 1935.285 The business was
purchased by G.M. Sewar[...]Thomas C. Fawcett. Fawcett and Craven amalgamated in 1972, thus bringing
the descendant of the original Bradley and Craven agency back under the wing
of Craven's.286

Bradley and Craven's machines were[...]. The earliest
was sent out before 1859 which was of the type first publicly displayed in 1856

and illustrated in 1859.287 The bulk of their machines were sent out from 1878
onwards.28[...], Mills were sent to the Queensport Brick Company in 1888, one
of the mills had been bought by Hudson's Dinsmore Pottery Company around 1917
and was still in use in 1967.291 The machines were popular at the major brickworks
in Melbourne. By 1888 the Box Hill Brickworks had on[...]293 Partridge does not mention Bradley and Craven
in his 19203 list of brick machines used in Sydney, so it appears that the dry press
and wire[...]94

Thomas Fawcett

Very little has been recorded of Thomas Fawcett's brickmaking machines.
The absence of references to their brickmaking machines before the 18805295
seems to indicate that this line of machines was a late development in the company

(which produced a fairly extensive range of all types of machinery).

Thomas Constantine Fawcett's296 work[...]ehouse
Engineering Works, Hunsley, leeds. Notices of patents were published in Australian
journals of the 18805 but give few useful details, one was published in October
1886297 announcing a patent granted; another one in July 1888 announcing
"Improvements in machinery for making and drying bricks".298

Fawc[...]ere introduced to Australia during the 18805. Two of
"Fawcett's latest patent brickmaking machines" were installed at the Band of
Hope and Albion Mines, Victoria, said to be "the[...]o Alfred Cornwall's Works at Brunswick, Melbourne in 1886.

Fawcett's agents for New[...]Victoria (Melbourne) and New
Zealand.306 A range of Fawcett’s machines were featured in The Building and
Engineering Journal of Australia and New Zealand of February and March, 1889.
The article pointed out that many excellent types of brickmaking machinery were
now available in Australia, including the "world renouned appliances of Messrs
Bradley and Craven". Fawcett's machines we[...]utting
machine, or those handmade, by compressing in a metal mould between two presses.
It produced a dense brick with sharp arrises (and distinct frogs) in any shape by
altering the mould, for example, bev[...]h the clay was deposited. The
mound was contained in a revolving cylinder which compressed the brick a[...]g the
bricks under enormous pressure. This method of brickmaking had "only been
introduced comparative[...]ck machines and brick presses were also available in light
and inexpensive machines operated by hand. These could be used in "shifting"

brickyards and by country bric[...]

81. (Right) a simplified version
in a housing (Spons' 1874, fig.1312).

D[...]mi-dry, process aimed at reducing the drying time
of bricks and as ordinary brick clay required a quarter of its volume of water314
the drying process was a lengthy one. Th[...]y hazzards that could
befall bricks as they dried in the hacks. Semi plastic bricks were generally for[...]315 This problem, plus the time consuming process of tempering and pugging,
appears to have led inventors to sidestep these inconveniences by developing the
idea of producing bricks without the benefit of water.

Some of the semi-plastic machines discussed had developed[...]ed directly from the quarry without any admixture of water,
such as Fawcett‘s "semi-plastic, or semi[...]d, dried, and pulverized
to a grainy powder, none of the grains being larger than a pea318 and then sl[...]passing the powder through steam and compressing in metal moulds
under great pressure. Some processes[...]aining sufficient moisture for the clay to adhere in the form
of a brick when subjected to great pressure.

Mr Prosser's "pressure brick" was one of the earliest inventions to explore
the dry press principle, though Messrs Woodworth and Moore of Boston USA had
their dry press machine brought to the attention of English readers in September
of 1851.319 The clay was ground to a fine powder in a slip kiln and in a dry state

subjected to a heavy pressure of 250 tons in metal moulds. The brick was said
to have been reduced to one third of the original thickness by the pressure and
the re[...]d not display
it for the International Exhibition of 1862.321 By the Platt process, the clay was
excav[...]on waggons and the contents tipped into a hopper-
in which large pieces were reduced by two revolving screws. The clay passed through
a drying cylinder five feet in diameter and 35 feet long and was blasted with ho[...]22 The powder was compressed
under great pressure in four moulds, twice to the top and underside of the brick,
forming bricks which could be delivere[...]The bricks were slow to overcome the prejudices of "many architects and
others" even by the late 1880s, despite tests to prove them equal in strength to
bricks made by other methods.324

The[...]and
publications like Spons' republished accounts of the process. The process, as
described in 1874, had not been modified; the fine powder in brick press was
subjected to heavy blows of one ton, the pistons working from above and below.
The faces of the mould were lined in case—hardened wrought iron plates and secured
b[...]dry process bricks were not particularly favoured in Britain but once
introduced to Sydney it became t[...]n ironed out. Platt machines were still operating in many

Sydney brickworks until very recently.326

85. (Right) plan of platt's dry press
Machine (Spons, 1874, fig.1313).

The history of the Platt machine in Sydney is quite interesting. As mentioned
previou[...]chine.
Goodlet and Smith worked the Platt machine in conjunction with a Hoffman kiln
and the success of this arrangement led them to erect another such p[...]an the above incidental references would suggest. In support
of this, Platt machines were the most commonly quoted of Sydney machines since
the 1880s and the Flatt brand headed to the top of the list published by Partridge
in the late 19205 and is constantly referred to thro[...]ne, "was considered to be the best by most people
in the trade", referring to the 18805. The Davis mac[...]e which, from the same
clay, made bricks superior in texture and density to that of the Platt machine.
The Blanks machine had some of its working parts below the floor which led
mecha[...]our again.

By the late 19205 machines being used in Sydney had barely changed since
the 18805,[...]

A list of some of the parts of a Platt machine may help in understanding
how such a machine worked. The following represent the "working parts" of a
Platt machine:

2 large cam shafts

2 large too[...]ulating scraper

Those noted with an asterisk, 16 in number, were classified as "oiling parts",
30 were classified as "wearing parts".340 Full descriptions of the working parts
may be found in the accounts of Clark341 and Spons.342 The most important part
from an archaeologist's point of View would be the mould and the pressure applied
resulting in the density and weight. The sliding chargers, or[...]plied pressure to the upper and lower broad sides of
the bricks. The mould itself had four sides known[...]d needed to be replaced from time to time because of wear.
The clay was further compressed by c[...]

The distinctive qualities of the bricks are to be found on the upper and lower[...]ng frog and pin,
or screw, marks. As for the size of the brick, the depth was most easily adjusted,
by[...]moulded bricks could be made.343
An illustration of a machine mould, though not of Platt make, may be found in
Spons.344

William and John Kennedy

Kennedy's, of Whitehall road, New Wortly, Leeds,345 were a little known
company of brick and tile machine manufacturers. The earliest machines, appear
to have been set up on the ground floor of a building at the Lithgow Valley Colliery
during[...]Kennedy's
"dry pressing" brick machines, "pioneer of its kind in the colony".346 Each machine
turned out two brick[...]as a "semi dry" machine, it was selected because of
a saving in horsepower in that the sliding charger only travelled half the distance
as that in the Platt machine. As the charger pushed the bric[...]aged on their face, rather than their
ends — as in the Platt machines.348

A Queensland brick plant consisting of two Fawcett brick plants and one
Kennedy's brick[...]s, rails, wire,
piping etc., was offered for sale in 1890 by a Sydney agent.349

The damage frequently done to the face of bricks made by the Kennedy
machine probably led to their disuse by the close of the nineteenth century.

John Whitehead and Compa[...]the Albert Works, Preston, Lancashire, were

one of the first machines to be used in the Sydney area. This machine was actually

in drain pipe making machine and was set up in Mr Holroyd's Sherwood Brick and
Tile Company during the 186115.350

One of Whitehead's "new" machines for making and pressing bricks was
displayed at the Great Exhibition in 1851 along with a couple of drain pipe and
tile machines.351

Apart from bric[...]ved 14 prizes from the Royal Agricultural Society
of England and prizes from the Royal Agricultural Societies of Ireland and North
Germany and the State Show at Richmond Virginia, USA in 1893. Prize medals
were also won at the following[...]55, 1856, 1862,
1874, 1877 as well as exhibitions in Amsterdam, Rotterdam and Lille.352

A "new model" brick-making machine, "the first of the kind ever imported
into this Colony" was installed in the Brick and Tile Works of the Lithgow Valley
Coal Company. The machine was[...]process" or "semi—plastic" processes.353

Some of Whiteheads movable brick cutting machines were illustrated in
Bourry after the turn of the century suggesting a long continued success.3[...]ic dust single brick machine".355
Little is known of this company but it was most likely established by the late
nineteenth century as one of their "Nuneaton" presses appeared in Bourry's work,356
(used for providing a better fi[...]other means).

There were many companies engaged in the manufacture of brickmaking
machines, as can be seen by perousing British trade directories. A number of
companies were also engaged in this manufacture, principally in Sydney and
Melbourne but these shall be de[...]

Machinery of American manufacture were also imported into New South
Wales,357 and other fronts of Australia. "Dry clay" machines in the USA, were
considered suitable for but a small proportion of clays and best suited for pressed
bricks for the fronts of buildings.358 The American machines by 1892 had n[...]d the process because there were often complaints of lack of uniformity
in the density of the brick and that after baking they were often "open and weak".
This was largely due to the failure in processing the clay properly.359 Most
authorities[...]he wire cutting extrusion machines were generally of the vertical pug- mill
type.”1 The Chambers' brick machine, produced by Messrs Chamber Bradley
and Company of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania was one such machine b[...]ghby, Ohio.363 One thing which these machines had
in common was that the extrusion came in head-first sections and the bricks were
severed a[...]or heads.

Brick moulding machines were generally of a type consisting of vertically
revolving periphery circular wheels364[...]ied by the drag marks left on the heads, or ends, of the
brick (rather than on the broad sides of bricks).

Re—Presing Machines

In most cases these were simple constructions which[...]hese machines were
used to improve the appearance of bricks, generally intended for the fronts or
exteriors of buildings, hence the name, facing bricks. The dies of these machines
were sometimes arranged so[...]

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In

Briekmaking Eewen @5258.

By FL SCH[...]

An early type of hand powered brick re—press, commonly used, was illustrated
in Bourry.366 The early hand powered re-press machines were operated by a lever
and remained popular because of their simplicity and portability right into. the[...]team

powered press was able to re—press bricks of any pattern.372

Machine Accessories

The main ac[...]he stone crushing machinery was mostly
the result of developments made for mining purposes. The most c[...]d for reducing very firm clays and hard
materials in the clay. The wrought iron pans were provided wit[...]ld Chilian mill.375 Edge runner mills were useful
in all branches of the clay industry and were made by a number of engineering
and brickmaking machinery companies,[...]mbine and work the clay and water, after
crushing in the pan mill or roller mill.378 These mixers were[...]ing machine did not have its own pug mill as part of
the apparatus. Some machines combined two processes in one, such as Bradley
and Craven’s "Clay Crushin[...]er".379

Boilers and steam engines were also used in most large brickworks of the
late nineteenth century onwards but as[...]

One of the earliest inventions which was a precursor to[...]Ainslie's "Brick Burning Kiln"
details published in 1846. The kiln was composed of various compartments where
the head of the first was passed into the next and so on. It was claimed that when
the bricks of the first chamber were burned, the bricks[...]

98. Section of a three flue scotch kiln with elaborate ro[...]

Another advance was the downdraught kiln. The heat of the fire was drawn
up from the base of the kiln in cavities in the wall and then decended over the
bricks and down through perforations in the floor of the kiln, drawn by the draught
via the flue conne[...]or
firing pottery and were later extended for use in burning bricks.

A combination of several previous ideas was united by the Austrian[...]basic advantage was that the heat from the firing of one chamber
was used to ignite the lot, and the h[...]firing utilizing all the heat produced resulting in a considerably saving.
in fuel. The use of coal to burn bricks had been in vogue for some time and patents
were taken out to improve the use of coal.387 The Hoffman kiln used coal but
it was no[...]advantage.388 The coal was fed through apertures
in the roof of each chamber, the vertical shafts, or fire holes, channelling the
fuel in to the skilfully arranged green bricks below.389[...]adjusting the
plug (which was attached to the end of a pulley) and operated from the roof of
the kiln. The flues leading from the chambers to the plug could be set at the top
or the base of the chambers of the tunnel, depending on whether an updraught
or[...]an kiln to another and
these were fully described in many books and articles.”3

One authority claimed that Hoffman kilns were first introduced to Britain
in 1856394 and others point to 1859,395 or "after" 1858.396 A patent notice
appeared in The Building News in January 1860 which announced the "foreign"
patent of F. Hoffman and A. Licht for, "a circular continuo[...]only one associated with the kiln as Albert Licht of Danzig
was included in the patent notice as well in a six months protection notice published
a week later.397 John Craven (of Bradley and Craven) "and two other gentlemen
were associated with Mr Hoffman in the patent for the kiln";398 or so a later

u

1

101. Original shape of the Hoffman Kiln (Australian National Clay,
Nov.1[...]at the detailed illustrations showing
the changes in the Hoffman Kiln as existed in Sydney during the
18805 and 18905 were not ready for the printing of this work.

The first Hoffman kiln built in Britain was built at Bradley and Craven's
Roundwo[...]g and Pressing Machine". The machine by the close of the 18805
had worked for 25 years,404 but the kil[...]e "Grand Prize" at the Paris Universal
Exhibition of 1867 which incidently had the largest numbers of visitors to that
time, boasting 10—million visitors.406

The circular kiln was restricted in size and some problems were encountered
because of eneven temperature distribution due to the circular shape. In 1870,
Hoffman introduced an important modificatio[...]increasing it
lengthwise, thus it because oblong in shape.407 Although the new kiln could be
extended[...]e fires burning at one time (for the fast burning of bricks) in order to make
it economical. The only real restriction was the capacity and drawing power of
the central chimney.408

The Hoffman patent kiln was advertised in 1873, "for burning Bricks, Tiles,
Pottery, Lime, Cement, and Roast Ores at a saving of 2/3rds of the fuel" and
interested people were invited to apply to see it work.409

After 1870 the shape of the kiln was once more modified. The kiln shape
was changed to a rectangle with two parallel sets of chambers united by a flue
at each end, instead of two semi circular tunnels, as in the 1870 patent. The chimney
was generally placed[...]rm was the most commonly used
by the first decade of the twentieth century in Britain.411 With further

Hof[...]an and he made sure that his patent was
protected in as many places as was necessary. The circular kiln was patented
in New South Wales on 01:07:1867.413 Another patent[...]"Permanent
ways" on 11:06:1t385.414

The erection of the first Hoffman kiln in Australia took place at the Hoffman
Patent Steam Brick Company, Brunswick, Melbourne in 1870.415 During the decade
following many of the leading brickmakers installed such a kiln, such as at Alfred
Cornwall's Brickworks at Brunswick in 1886.416 The South Brunswick Brick Company
had an 18 chambered Hoffman by 1894.417 The first to be installed in Queensland
was at the Albion Pottery Works in 1888, serving the bricks from two semi plastic
machines.418 Early in 1889, one was contemplated for the Mornington Brick, Tile,
Pipe and Freestone Quarry Company in Tasmania.419

The first Hoffman kiln in New South Wales was erected at Messrs Goodlet
and[...]Sydney, by the late 18705.420 This kiln remained
in operation until about the early 19205. Another wa[...]introduced by a Mr Gurney which moved the bricks
in trucks through the kiln by a tramway set-up. The first two kilns were set up
in Waterloo and Newtown but proved a failure which resulted in a reversion to
the Hoffman kiln.‘122 By 1893 Hoffman kilns were very common, the majority
of large Sydney brickworks having them or one on a s[...]specifically mentioned.423 One had been completed in June 1888 at the
Gore Hill Brickworks and was lit[...]lled the Hoffman kiln for a few years
at the turn of the century but had little advantage over the Hof[...]o
the twentieth century427 and several were still in operation until the early 1980s.
Hoffman kilns, built in Sydney up to the 19205, commonly had chambers 16-[...]1060 bricks per foot running. The
chief criticism of Hoffman kilns was that the smoke flues were placed in the centre
of the kiln above the level of the chamber floor which tended to draw away the
heat of the wicket walls and had difficulty in carrying away vapour.428

There were many other patent kilns promoted in Britain, such as Maraud's
patent brick kiln,438 but these had little impact in Australia.

Shaped and Special Bricks

As most categories of shaped or special bricks may be produced by a variety
of means, it was thought best to include this section at the close of the discussion

of hand and machine made bricks and kilns.

The limitations imposed on the shape and size of bricks by the brick duty
had been recognized for[...]early 18405, complaints were being
aired publicly in such journals as The Builder.439 Experimentation[...]were
successful or not. Shortcuts had been taken in the manufacture of bricks in order

to mitigate the effects of the brick duty, resulting in a very poor product. The
prevailing fashion for stuccoed buildings in Britain at least hid the inferior bricks
produced[...]coed building had began
to change, the "New Style of Architecture" proclaimed that it preferred brickw[...]d that the poor quality bricks encouraged
the use of stucco:

I maintain, that to the use of cement as a decorative feature must
be attributed the defective and unworkmanlike brickwork of the present

age. I look upon every cement—fronted building as a trick and a
cheat. . . . It is, in fact, a downright forgery and a lie!442

Articles[...]rusion method, the process
was largely an outcome of the development of the pipe and tile machines of the
18305 and 1840s, especially taking after othe[...]e manual process.

It was claimed that the making of hollow bricks could be traced back to
the "remote[...]t for hollow bricks was granted to Benford Denton in 1812.
These "tubical bricks" were used to convey[...]cts. The invention seemed to have no consequence. In 1822 a palace was

built in Berlin of hollow bricks. Accounts of hollow bricks in Russia were published
in 1827. A German language account by V. Packh published in the 18205 gave the
French the credit of inventing the hollow brick (used in the harbour of Toulon)

and samples were noted in 1825 by V. Packh. Bricks with isometrical project[...]gitudinal perforations for vaulting were patented in Vienna

in 1841. The writer believed that the English[...]

In 1845 Robert Beart, of Godmanchester, Huntingdonshire, obtained a patent[...]he market with them.447 Beart had
long been known in the brick and tile trade, as he had marketed his[...]n machines were displayed
at the Great Exhibition ofin 1851 and 1854 despite the fact that he had borrow[...]es were
said to be "the most generally employed", of "the most universally used", "die
machine for per[...]perforated bricks were said to reduce the
weight of the brick by one fifth.452 The bricks were manufactured by Beart of
gault clay at Huntingdon in 1852 had 24 holes. At Beart's works at Arlesey, it
was found that the number of perforations, or holes, had been reduced to 21 by
the 18705.458 Beart's name was well known in agricultural circles for his knowledge
of drainage454 and in the brick and tile trade, having even experimented in tunnel
drying chambers.455 Beart's name is constantly found in publications from the
18305 to the 18705.[...]

In 1846 three patents were taken out, by a Mr Frankl[...]nother gentleman, the latter was for the purposes of heating, ventilation and
drainage.458 These purpo[...]the brick
duty as an argument for healthy housing in 1850. The 1849—1851 period saw a great
deal of interest in hollow bricks. Robert Rawlinson was very dominant during
this period and contributed a number of articles on the topic.459 The bricks
discussed by this time were hollow, in some cases, to the extent of four fifths
less than an ordinary brick and were[...]tucco. The light weight construction
and the ease in moulding, drying and burning was considered a gre[...]nts, chimneys, copings etc.462 Beedle and
Rodgers of Wokingham, Berkshire, patented ventilating bricks of an "H" shape
with the holes forming a semi cylind[...]ate inside the wall. The bricks took up the space of two normal sized
bricks and as the patent dated t[...]5, it was promoted to save half
on the usual cost of brick duty.463 These bricks were shown in greater detail in
Knight's work of many years lated.464 Illustrations of the moulds used may be
found in Bourry for the extrusion type machine.465

Mr H. Roberts of Falmouth had patented466 a rich range of "bonded" hollow
bricks, these were used in Price Albert's Model Houses for the working class[...]and other specialized
forms were also illustrated in Knight's fictional-31.468 Various clays could be[...]om
the Buxley Works near Esher; the glazed bricks of a grey tint were made by a
Mr Seagar of Vauxhall from a clay from the north of Devon; and the light coloured
glazed bricks were[...]Clayton machine could produce perforated bricks. In an 1851 advertisement it
was claimed that the hol[...]Bonded Hollow Chimney Bricks" for flues were used in the

Hol[...]n
exported to Australia at any time but fragments of a crude type have been found
on some demolition sites, perhaps dating to the close of the nineteenth century
and the early twentieth ce[...]ced ordinary bricks and had the advice been taken
of a writer in 1851, these bricks would have been the perfect dating tool. The
author of the article entitled, "What our American Brethere[...]Medford and other brickmakers would put the date of the
year in the bottom of their moulds, each brick, to the remotest epoch
in the New World, would be an unerring chronicle of incalculable
importance to future antiquarians.476

Moulded and Ornamental Bricks

The use of stucco reached a high point in Britain during the 18405, as noted
before. Architects such as Nash and Wyatt had promoted it in many of their
important constructions as a way to disguis[...]ck duty was
the chief obstacle to the development of bricks of "artistic patterns and moulds".478
The repeal of the duty did in fact stimulate the moulded brick trade but the re[...]seen until the 1860s and 18705 with the promotion of "Queen

Anne" style and the Arts and Crafts movement, developed by such men as Rus[...]ed bricks had been used on and off since the time of Elizabethl
but declined to virtually nothing after the imposition of duty and an especially
high duty on "fancy" bricks.480

There are few specific references to the types of moulded and ornamental
bricks as the shapes used[...], bullnosed
etc.), though patterns on the surface of bricks, as with ornamental tiles such as
Mintons,[...]xtended the tile making principles to the forming of ornamental
bricks.481 These bricks, however, were[...]ick Works at Rugby by 1858 produced white bricks "of almost
any design" by machinery.482

Many machines were able to produce bricks of various shapes. The most
common machines were the re—pressing machines such as those of Clayton's483
and Fawcett's484 but any moulding ma[...]dies to
produce any shaped brick. An illustration of a Fawcett machine displays the common
range of such bricks.485 Bourry illustrates a range ”fancy" bricks both of the shaped
and fancy impression types486 and an i[...]s.”7

Glazed and Coloured Bricks

Up to the end of the eighteenth century the only colours available were
due to differential burning in kilns and clamps, producing a variety of pale to
deep reds and partially vitrified purple[...]ot change its colour when burned but was too pure in alumina
to be used for making bricks.“90 By the second decade of the nineteenth century,
white bricks were being m[...]rted into London as facing bricks.491

By the end of the eighteenth century a London stock brick, known as a "marl"

or "malm" was developed which was of a good yellow colour and was hard and

not r[...]marls which were elsewhere described497 as being of a "bright
uniform yellow colour" and "fine yellow[...]ky clay or they were made by adding chalk
to clay in the wash mill.499 Artificial process marls required about 6 per cent
of chalk added as the wash mill, the mixture was reduced to a thick cream and
allowed to dehydrate in tanks. Screened cinders were added and the whole[...]re made artificially but had previously been made of natural marl. Gee
calls them malms and the clay,[...]sandy and calcarous" according to the proportion of alumina,

silica and lime they contained.501 They also varied in colour, blue, red and yellow
etc.502

The brick described by Wilson, of a "pale buff" colour appears to have been
the type of gault brick of a "pale buff cream" discussed by Winser as having become
popular in London from the 18505.503 Wilson thought that thi[...]ered chalk with the clay but controlling the heat of the
kiln and using a special fuel. Wilson admitte[...]secret as possible among the manufacturers". Some of the bricks exhibiting
a "beautiful and perfect bu[...]on oxide on inferior bricks.505

The light bricks of white, yellow or buff, being porous absorbed the soot
etc. of industrialized areas and soon turned a dull grey[...]early stage, leading some to glaze their bricks. In 1851, two rooms of the
Prince Albert Model House were decorated with[...]and were glazed.507 Bale's brickworks specialized
in coloured, glazed bricks by 1856; the techn[...]

to the process of making ornamental flooring tiles, like those of Minton's.508
Although semi-glazed bricks were gen[...]ce with a flux which melted silica
on the surface of the brick. Other methods included applying a glaze to the suface
of the brick or even throwing salt into the kiln dur[...]oofing,
resinous compounds and a soluble silicate of soda were used. Pigments could be
added to the gl[...]sand a white brick would
result without warping. In fact any clay containing no more than 6 per cent of
iron and to which was added chalk, would produce[...]e kilns were chosen for burning to avoid deposits of soot. White bricks
were often perforated or made hollow because of their high specific gravity. Esbury,
or Beaulieu[...]olk whites were made from
sand gault clay. Gaults in general were white bricks but were often perforat[...]the Patent White Brickworks
at Rugby specialized in white facing bricks and "architectural white brick mouldings
of almost any design". These bricks were made by patent machinery providing
a brick of sharp arrises.515

Formulae began to be published from the 18605 on how to obtain colour
in bricks by the addition of foreign elements. It was well known that iron oxi[...]d burning at a great heat. These bricks were made
in Staffordshire by machine which finely ground the[...]ocks, railway bridges and vaducts.516 These types of bricks
were known as the "Staffordshire blues". In Wolverhampton at Dudley they were
largely[...]

In Sydney shaped and coloured bricks were virtually[...]the mid
to late 18803, when they made their debut in the first "Federation", or "Queen
Anne", style bu[...]the 18705. The greatest demand for moulded bricks
of good colour occurred during the 18905 to the end of the first decade of the
twentieth century.523

Fire or Refractory Bricks

Fire bricks were chiefly used in lining furnaces and ovens or in places where
they were required to resist the strongest of heat where ordinary bricks would
fuse and vitrify as they shrank.524 This category of bricks was not well documented
but is useful for dating certain buildings and structures in that they often had
identifying letters or words[...]the late 18505
considered an export trade, those of "common qualities" were often shipped to
Australia.525 Fire bricks in Australasia were sometimes used in baking ovens
and arches of fireplaces, as well as fireplaces for burning ant[...]al ones included with the regular building
bricks in walls. In smelting furnaces and ovens, they were regularly[...]ty bricks could often survive 250 charges, though in cases where
the impurities reacted with the smelt[...]y not survive 25 heats.526
Thus fire bricks found in a disused furnace or oven, generally represent th[...]t they were contemporaneous with the
construction of the furnace or oven. Where fires were not of a great heat, such
as in a fireplace arch or baking oven, the fireb[...]

in colour and containing "a very large proportion of sand", were mainly used for
coating furances and lining the ovens of glasshouses.527 Later Windsor loam (clay
and loam[...]brick was made below the usual
brick size and was of a "deep, but bright red colour". The brick was comparatively
soft and composed mostly of sand, cemented together with a "minute" quantity
of clay. Although it could be cut with a common saw[...]d became hard and durable after the first
heating in a furnace. It was regularly used to form the arch[...]lting iron. It was recommended also for the domes
of furnaces and any area which was not subjected to blows by the throwing in
of large logs or areas to be raked with large iron p[...]Stourbridge brick was used.529

A similar variety of the Windsor brick was made at Cheam in Surrey. By
the late 1840s, these bricks were stam[...]e called "Non-such" bricks.530

The other variety of fire brick was made at Stourbridge and were known[...]ourbridge brick was larger than the common bricks of the
time and were of a pale yellow or red colour. It was a non absorbant brick and
could resist the heat of steel. The brick was manufactured from bricks made of
Stourbridge fire clay which were then ground to a course powder and remoulded
with an additional quantity of fire clay and fired in the usual way.531 An 1844
account mentioned that they were formed out of old firebricks, crucibles and
glass pots reduced to powder and contained an excess of silica over alumina.532

By the 18405 fire bricks were often made in a wedge form for building arches
and for use in segments of circles for building round furnaces of f1ues.533 Fire
bricks were often by necessity moulded in different shapes for different purposes
because they could not be dressed and exposed in a furnace without losing its
power.534

Flemish c[...]ed were often used for paving but were

also used in the construction of ovens.535

Fire bricks began to be made in several localities as the demand increased[...]

One part of clay and three parts of coarse pure sand540 was considered
a good formula to resist high temperatues, but could not resist metals in a fusible
state (producing oxidization). For the resistance of great heat, a coarsely powdered
and burnt clay wa[...]ing with new formulae. By the 18605, the grinding of hard suitable
clays seemed to form the best material for fire bricks. In one instance during
the late 18505 "valuable" fire bricks were made from the refuse of the China Clay
Works of Devonshire. After washing out the kaolin the quar[...]ood heat resisting bricks.5‘12 The
introduction of the Bessemer process required bricks where the ch[...]as fluxes and made bricks run.543 The best class of these
bricks required 16 parts of quartz to one of plastic clay; the second class bricks
were made of 16 parts of ground first class bricks and one part of clay; and third
class bricks were made of 8 parts of second and third class bricks to one part
of clay. Sufficient water was added to the crumbly m[...]ady for moulding. First class bricks were pressed in a machine for
three quarters of an hour under the weight of three tons per square inch. Second
and third class bricks were moulded by hand in open moulds.544

Formulae quoted in various publications for fire bricks often seem to conflict;
in some publications lime or potash are condemned whereas in others they are
represented as an essential ingredient.545 The Ure Supplement of 1879 discusses
the problem at length.546 There wa[...]tly under different circumstances. A porous brick of large grain was
suitable for blast furnaces but a close grain of fine material (some fire clay) was
suitable for c[...]fusible brick known. Magnesia was often condemned in clay
as it made the clay fusible but it was found that in large quantities it made a
very refractory brick.[...]was found to be harmless if there was an absence
of alkalais unless the bricks were used for melting steel. With the absence of silica,
a fire brick could contain five of six per cent iron oxide.547

The Ure supplement of 1879 admitted that satisfactory answers to the
qu[...]had not been received.548 The metallurgical
world of the time had come to the conclusion that the refractory material of
the future had to be made artificially as there was no solution in the use of natural
materials. It was found that fire bricks[...]rick manufacturers produced many grades and types of
fire bricks by the late nineteenth century, the bricks were often impressed with
symbols expressing the type of fire brick, such as "H.A." or "high alumina", "SIL"
for pure silica.

The most common of the British export fire bricks originated from Gl[...]Cardowan patent being very common. John G.
Stein of Bonnybridge, near Glasgow, Scotland (est. 1887) who exported many types
of refractory bricks impressed with names indicating the amount of alumina and
silica used, "Stein" (33/3596[...]

Co were one of the earliest to export bricks.551 Gartcraig and G[...]idge; etc.

Firebricks are usually white or cream in colour and are very similar in
appearance to dry press bricks int hat they have[...]ers and there is not '
sufficient source material in Australia in order to attempt a gazetteer, which
would be of inestimable value.

Attempts to rival the imports in Australia were not successful until after
the turn of the century, though they had been produced from s[...]re.

Sydney Brickmaking

During the initial years of settlement, there was a desperate shortage of
tradesmen. The few persons who were skilled were quickly utilized as overseers
of the various specialist "gangs". The unskilled men[...]igned to the brickmakers gang had the opportunity of learning
every aspect of the trade. Several of the more ambitious convicts would have
graduated[...]. Any aptitude
would have been encouraged because of the great shortage of tradesmen. There
was no technical education and o[...]ick trade, at least, this remained the only means of acquiring
the skill until it was superseded by me[...]ments up to the 18705 would have been an adoption of overseas
borrowing554 modified by experience gained by local brickmakers of the peculiar
conditions of an area. The trade was basically mediaevel in technological
advancement but had benefited from years of trial and error, (except perhaps
for the 1784—1850 period where tax was paid on unfired bricks in Britain). There
were but few variables in the trade as it had reached a maturity whe[...]

in quality had already been reached by Elizabethan times after which period only
changes in fashion modified appearances until the advent of mechanization.

For the proposed settlement, it had been anticipated in Sir George Young's
Plan of 1875 that bricks would be made as a list of necessary tools included
"Bricklayers tools".555[...]56
though some were sent out. The practical needs of the settlement were severly
underestimated and poorly chosen because of the frequent requests for and
complaints about the most elementary of tools. Within less than six months, for
instance, there was already a shortage of bricklayers' trowels.557 With few
exceptions, imp[...]tation and local tool making made up for the lack
of direct importation from Britain.

A list of articles sent by the First Fleet, extracted from the account books
of the Admiralty, reveal that 12 brick moulds and 10[...]culated for such a size. The Mitchell Library has in its collection
a brick taken from the 01d Government House site, it is very irregular in shape
and measures approximatley 82‘: to 8-3/4[...]a flesh like orange colour. It contained a number of large
holes where organic matter had burned out suggesting that the London method
of clamp burning was used, where a percentage of the fuel was mixed in with

the brick clay. There is little evidence th[...]e bricklayer
and apparently a builder. He was put in charge of a gang of labourers who were
responsible for the erection of the majority of huts built by May 1788.562 A month
previously an unnamed person had been given charge of a gang in order to make
bricks in the area subsequently known as the Brickfields.563 There is no doubt
that Bloodworth knew the basics of making bricks as he was appointed
superintendent of "Brickmakers and Bricklayers" on the 1st September 1791.564
Curiously, in view of his reputation as the first brickmaker, th[...]

Bloodworth, (or Bloodsworth), was recorded in Tench as coming from Kingston
upon Thames,566 which is located in Surrey but within the statutary fifteen miles
from London. He, by inference, worked as a bricklayer/builder in the area, which
suggests that he worked with regu[...], also came from
the London area. It is unlikely, in those initial years at least, that an obscure or
haphazard system of brickmaking was practiced, (especially considerin[...]generally noted for his building/brickwork skill: in 1790 he was
given credit for having played a part in the erection of every "house or building";567
in 1804, he was acknowledged as "Superintendent of Builders", ”for many years".
Bloodworth was credited with the erection of the brick built Government House
and with the erection of "most of the public buildings since".5‘68 There can be
l[...]e ensured as far as possible the quality
and size of the bricks produced up to about 1804 for Governme[...]himself.

The unnamed person who had been placed in charge of a gang making bricks
by March 1788,569 could have[...]e his conviction. Wheeler was aged
26 at the time of his conviction (1785) but in the court records he was stated to
be a labourerj’70 Tench's account of Wheeler strongly supports that he was involved
in the brick trade around London as he could compare[...]ith
at London, also showed the same knowledge but in his case, even his former
employer, a Mr Scot, wa[...]akes it clear that
King was working with his gang in 1789 as he wrote of "last year" under the date,
November 1790. The ex[...]ing573 but it appears that King has slightly more in his favour as Australia's
first brickmaker than John King.

James Becket came in the Second Fleet. By November 1790 he was working
at Parramatta with a gang of 52 people, turning out 25,000 bricks per werek.57[...]go" he worked at Birmingham. The extra large
size of bricks found to date to 1793 at Parramatta Government House575 might

reflect the custom of making larger bricks in the mid and north England areas.

Not a great deal is known of Becket but the other men must have left an
impression on the early brickmaking of Sydney. Wheeler was still in the Colony
by 1828.576 King remained an overseer of brickmakers until he left the Colony
in 1810.577

By the close of the first four wereks of landing at Port Jackson, brick clay
had been found and "8 or 10 Convicts of the trade" were "employed in the
Business".578 Collins entered similar news under the month of March:

A gang of convicts was employed, under the direction of a person

who understood the business, in making bricks at a spot about a mile
from the settlement, at the head of Long Cove.579

No record survives to record how t[...]is fairly
certain that the first lots were burned in clamps as there were no expendable
bricks or ston[...]lly familiar with the London clamp burning method of burning
bricks. The Old Sydney Government House b[...]g to the 1791/1792 period580 also showed
evidence of having been clamp burned.581 Although clamp burni[...]at the policy was to construct proper brick kilns of a type commonly known
as "Scotch" kilns.

The fir[...]e saw the men "digging out a Kiln for the Burning of them".582
As noted earlier, it was sometimes the custom to dig out the floor of a Scotch
kiln to the extent of four feet in depth. (This would have saved effort in the
construction of higher kiln walls.) Disaster struck in August when the brick kiln
"fell in more than once".583 Kiln walls were inclined inwa[...]y mud
or clay was used to bind the brick or stone of the walls, so it is easy to imagine
how heavy rains could wreck such a structure, especially when composed of poor
materials. By the end of the year there were at least two kilns. Tench wrote about
an assembled force of about fifty "Indians", "near the brick kilns, which stand
but a mile from the town of Sydney" but the convicts working there pointed th[...]left
their work at the brick kilns without leave" in March 1789 with the intent of
plundering the natives at Botany Bay, arme[...]

Up until July 1789 the brick gang, under the direction of the overseer, had
averaged 10,000 bricks per mont[...]ce thought must have been lavished upon the topic
of kilns, as by April 1790 Hunter was able to mentio[...]cles they made very well".587

By the latter half of 1789, James King with two stools and the assistance
of 16 men and two boys were averaging 11,000 bricks per week. The average
number of bricks made dropped during the period of "short allowance" (June 1790)
but his team was in[...]terwards to compensate for the increased
distance of carrying firewood to the kilns.588 Samuel Wheeler[...]one brick stool and two tile stools with the help of 21 men who "cut wood",
dug clay etc.". Wheeler wa[...]0,000 bricks and tiles per month,
(the proportion of bricks to tiles was optional). From June 1790 with some number
of stools but 22 men and two boys, were tasked to ma[...]n for July 1790 accounted for 40 persons involved in making
bricks and tiles and 50 persons involved in transporting the bricks.589 By November
1790 bric[...],000 per wee‘k.590

There was always a shortage of brickmakers and Governor Phillip made
several requests for a “brick and tile maker" in June 1790, rather exaggerating
the situation.”1[...]many were eventually sent out, though
one arrived in the "Kitty" in December 1792.592

The bricks produced appeared to have been of a tolerable quality. Wheeler
thought his bricks to be of a "moderately good" quality by English standards and
if sold at Kingston-upon-Thames in 1784, they would havefetched about 24 shillings
p[...]ingham, "eighteen months ago".

By the last werek of February 1788, a soil had been discovered[...]

in May to Lord Sydney596 and reported in July that they were making, "very good
bricks".59[...]hat although the earth made good bricks, the want of lime for cement hindered
their usefulness.598 Som[...]s bricks; Collins was not sure if it was a defect in the process
or in the clay itself as they were a deep red colour af[...]durable. Collins thought that the bricks produced in Sydney were
superior.599 Hunter was satisfied wit[...]s and pottery.600 It seems
that the first batches of brick made at Parramatta were underfired, being a deep
red colour, but in Sydney the bricks and tiles were described (1792) as being of
one colour, a "light brown", "which make the buil[...]with brick buildings were largely due to the lack of
lime. In September 1788, the Governor complained that they were obliged to lay
bricks and stone in clay and that, by necessity, the walls had to be made "of an
extraordinary thickness" and even then were no[...]t improve to a reasonable standard until the time of Macquarie but even‘
then a loam or mud mortar w[...]Parramatta, all brick
buildings were found to be in a ruinous state by 1797, they were repaired durin[...]able to support their own
weight".603 The problem of the lack of a strong mortar had repercussions for
a couple of decades. In 1793 one of the first of a series of escapes/intrusions
occurred where the bricks of a wall were simply dislodged.604 Many more reports
of similar occurrences have been noted.605

By 1793 the enduring system of contracting brickmakers had already
commenced. A[...],000 bricks
for an officer's house "near the town of Sydney" and was charged forty two pounds
and ten[...]rly outrageous price but labour was
expensive and in short supply. This incident may have led to an in[...]cted the brickmaker was said to have an allotment
of one hundred acres of land "near the town of Sydney".605 This appears to have
been John Palmer who was granted 100 acres at the "head" of Garden Island Cove,
east of the common grounds of the town of Sydney, on the 25th February 1793.607
Palm[...]

own. By 1802, the brickyard was fully in operation, as shown on M.F. Peron's map
of 1802. The works were probably established on the[...]n next to the
stream is clearly indicated as part of the brickworks to the west, very close to
Palmer'[...]ived to at least 1822609 but very little
is known of its activities.

By 1800 most major Government buildings were of brick but private houses
were being built of brick also but were very expensive.610 It was still a luxury
to have a chimney and floor of brick for the ordinary person, (for which 1400 br[...]lic protests were aired by 1803 about the expense
of bricks and the danger of fires caused by wooden and wattle and daub chimneys.
It was thought that a regulation of brick charges could remedy the situation. The
main problem, as admitted in 1803, was that there were very few brickmakers
an[...]ce
could be lowered to a reasonable rate, the use of bricks would become more
general.612

The figures of men in the Government brick gangs during 1790 were unusually
high because of the programme to build enduring Government buildi[...]luding
some boysfi’13 The figures from the end of 1790 must have steadily declined. A
number of those involved in brickmaking in Sydney were sent ot Norfolk Island
by February 17[...]efi'14
During 1791 bricks were still being made "in numbers and with ease" at Sydney
and Parramatta for the building programme.615 The number of brickmakers is
difficult to gauge betweren 1791 a[...]usive), there
were 24 men making bricks at a rate of 12,000 per werek, and six tilemakers
producing 3,000 tiles per werek.615 Parramatta had half the number of brickmakers
and half the production rate but produced no tiles for those years.617

By the close of 1799 it was decided to form another gang of brickmakers
and the carpenters were tasked to mak[...]moolds [sic], tables etc.,
etc. for a second gang of brickmakers".618 Curiously, the Return for the year
1800 shows no increase in either Sydney or Parramatta.619 The general muste[...]st 1800, (convicts and free men not having grants
of land), reveal 44 brick and tilemakers in Sydney and only one for Parramatta,

Toong[...]

were included but the absence of the Parramatta gang is a puzzle, unless they
were helping out in Sydney at the time of the muster. The 1800 Return also reveals
that two[...]er 1800, the Returns are replaced with statements of quarterly
employment. Data for the years 1801 and[...]brickmaker‘s tools.621 For the quarterly ending in March, August
and December, 20, 12 and 13 brickmakers were recorded for each quarter: in
December 10 brickmakers were located at Parramatt[...]802 to June 1805, only 12 brickmakers were listed in the
returns.623 No brickmakers were listed in Parramatta at all during the 1804/1805
period but 19 brickmakers were listed outside of Sydney and Parramatta in the
quarter ending in June 1805 (Newcastle, Norfolk Island etc.).624 In September
1805, 11 brickmakers were working in Sydney.625 The returns for December 1805
and August 1806 show no figures under the heading of "brick and tilemakers".626
A Return for October 1[...]nt brickmakers gradually cease to be incorporated
in correspondence to the authorities in Great Britain; this reflects the maturity
of the industry.

The pattern in Sydney was repeated in every new settlement founded from
Parramatta and Newfolk Island on. As in the case of John Stretton, an ex—brick
and tilemaker from S[...]reward for his services
as a brickmaker, a ticket of leave. Around 1816 he was sent to George Town as
an overseer of brickmakers. Stretton, like his predecessors was slowed down in
his work because the men under him were "learners[...]the trade.629

The Brickfields

It was customary in most settlements to set aside a suitable area for[...]ate individuals could use the area too but by way of a
lease". Leases were also sold by individuals who had obtained private property
in such an area or a Government lease.“0

The first brickfield in the Sydney area was located in the depression between
the present Town Hall Station and Central Station eastwards of George street.631
The site, near a number of water sources, was chosen for its suitable "brick earth",
or clay, by March 1788.632 The location is shown in Cribb's plan of April 1788.
During July 1790 a road was formed to the Brickfields to facilitate the cartage
of bricks into Sydney.”3 By 1793, three brick carts were in operation, drawn
by twelve men. Each cart transpo[...]or 350 bricks, one team
carting either four loads of tiles or five of bricks per day.634

The brickfields, in August 1789, were made one of the four districts of Sydney.
The brickfields may be regarded as the first suburb of Sydney. In 1799 the "Brick
Fields" were described as, "a suburb of the town of Sydney . . . within a few
yards of the main road.635 An illustration of the area shows a number houses
and plots by Augus[...]d 72 houses.537
The area may previously have been of some significance to the aboriginal population,

as a number of meetings and incidents involving the aborigines occurred there
before 1300.533

During the first two decades of the nineteenth century most references
to the brickfields are to do with the buying and selling of domestic houses, goods,
and major or petty crimes[...]rickmaking could co-exist with such a
high degree of domestic and general trade activities. There is n[...]ssing by the road to Parramatta,
to gather a load of brickbats from the Brickfields and off—load the[...]seer.640

The Government continued to make bricks in the Brickfields but several
convicts made their o[...]t working hours. Those
requiring a certain amount of bricks, advertised the quantity wanted and would[...]rickmaker.641 There must have been quite a number
of private brickyards in operation by the end of the first decade of the nineteenth
century as advertisements for the letting of brickyards often mention adjoining
leases or properties of private individuals.642 '

The main route between[...]before 1811 was via Hyde
Park. Government Orders of 05:10:1811 closed the old access road and ordered

By the time of Governor Macquarie the Brickfields had spread in all directions
from the original nucleus. In October 1810 Macquarie wished to prevent, "any
en[...]future transgressions would lead to the revoking of "permission" to make bricks
at the Brickfields.645 Bricks from the Macquarie period are well represented
in surviving buildings, they appear to have been of good quality but the bricks
seen were especially[...]building),
and do not represent the average brick of the time. The bricks used internally
are more rep[...]arracks, St
James' church and the Law Courts vary in size and quality.

Attempts to improve the quality of bricks were made by such men as Druit,
who betwee[...]ble covered kiln", for Government bricks,
capable of burning 100,000 bricks at a time.647 At the time[...]Interviews by Commissioner Bigge reveal a wealth of evidence and a rather
mixed picture. Bigge reported that Government bricks were found to be "very
interior in quality" compared to those made by Government men in their private
time, ". . . although composed nearly of the same materials, and burned in kilns
immediately adjoining to those of the government". The moulds used, resulted
in bad bricks because of irregularity in the sizes of brick mouldsfi49

Attempts have been made to com[...]Bricks up to about 1800 tend to the smaller sizes of the
British brick laws but vary quite a lot. It w[...], and even within the same
building: this was one of Bigge's main complaints but was obviously never h[...]roblem was probably due to differential shrinkage in the kiln.

Bigge was concerned that good tools should be used in Government buildings

and that "in every instance" these should be marked wit[...]

By the mid 18205, Cunningham reported that all of Sydney's bricks were
made at the Brickfields, as[...]called that the Brickfields were formerly
thought of as a "Sabbath's Days' walk",654 indicating that they were still in
operation and that the availability of transport had been much improved. The
bricks or lime cannot have changed much in quality by the time of Cunningham's

visit (1826)“355 because he noted that a burglar could pick a hole through a brick
wall "in a very few minutes".656

In 1838, the Sydney Building Act of 1837 was thoroughly reviewed and
interviews were published of various architects, builders etc., on aspects of the
Act. Evidently, the variation seen in the brick sizes by Bigge had not improved;

Despite the[...]lear that several private
establishments remained in the area, though probably mostly to the south, un[...]y bus-stop area, or Hutchesson's Paddock).666 One of the earliest
new areas (by the late 18203) was along South Head road.667

The brickmakers of the Brickfields shifted their operations from the[...]urry Hills, Glebe, Ultimo
and Camperdown were one of the first areas to be exploited and at about the[...]nto the twentieth century. With the establishment of the railway

and the opening of vast areas for residential purposes during the 18[...]rdt,
Marrickville, Ashfield etc.“8

By the time of the expansion away from the traditional brickfields frogs
of various designs became common. The most common frog shapes of the 18405
to 18705 were rectangles of all proportions, lozenges, hearts and heel shapes[...]d bricks begin to be found from the 18305 onwards
of the types as listed above. Panelled rectangular b[...]opular from the 1870s to 18905, but more commonly in country
areas. Earlier examples of broad but shallow depressions have been found in two
early structures dating to ca.1806 and ca.l82[...]e that they could easily be overlooked.)669

Many of the early machine made bricks had standard shaped[...]ssed upon them. The Gazetteer may
be found useful in establishing the maker's name and perhaps a date.

Mechanization

There was a gradual mechanization of the brickmaking process but the
documentation for[...]ever, that any
mechanization before the 18705 was of no consequence to the trade as a wholefil70
Machinery used in connection with brickmaking consisted mainly of horsedrawn
puddling machines and the first machin[...]licable only to country areas).

An official list of manufacturies in New South Wales, lists one with "Steam
machinery for making bricks" in 1855 and two in 1856.672 It was not stated as
to which aspect the[...]oted the rich potential brickmaking machinery had
in Australia. F. Rossi, in the Hassall Correspondence, in 1861, promised the Rev.
Hassall that he wo[...]

0 In earlier days ofher Sfafes, due fa maferials avail[...]ou as +0

whefhEr you can adopf drypress mefhods in your yarcL

Dryprasa[...]

The subsequent history of Sydney brickmaking may best be deduced through
Th[...]es, dates and locations. By the 18805 the history
of bricks becomes too complex to deal with it on a g[...]d rather be viewed from suburb to suburb, keeping
in mind the expense of cartage.

73

Notes — Chapter One

The Basic process of making common bricks for houses is referred to, w[...].

The Building News, 16:01:1857, p.61.

Journals of the House of Commons, 21:03:1725, p.631.

Rees, The Cyclopedia: A Universal Dictionary of Arts, Science: and
Literature, London, 1819, p.2. The[...]e Builder, 1845, p.183.

Dobson, C.G. Manufacture of Bricks and Tiles, The Clay Products Journal
of Australia, May 1936, p.25.

Young, D. Brickmaking[...]lder, 14:12:1844, p.615.

Cresy, E. Encyclopaedia of Civil Engineering, London 1880, New Immion,
p.709[...]Burn, R.S. The Colonists and Emmigrants Handbook of the Mechanical Arts.
Edinburgh and London, 1854, p.93.

Ure's Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures and Mines, 1860 edition (Robert
Hunt was the editor of this work and the later editions), p.447.

The Bu[...]Cresy, op.cit., p.709.

Tomlinson, C. Cyclopedia of Useful Arts, London, 1852/1853, p.187.
Rees, op.cit., Brick Z[...]Tomlinson, op.cit., p.186.

Dawes, A. Brickmaking in Australia, The Clay Products Journal of Australia,
November 1935, p.12.

Wilson, op.cit., p.534.
Combination of sources.
Dawes, op.cit., p.12: Wilson, op.[...]

Spons’ Dictionary of Engineering, London, 1874, p.659.

Ibid.

BEJANZ,[...]News, 03:06:1870, p.VIII.

Hazleton, W. The Charm of Brickwork. Thesis, Bachelor of Architecture,
University of Sydney, 1928. Unpaginated. Hazleton may have mistaken a
vertical mark along the edge of a brick as a sign of wear or cracking.

Ure, op.cit., 1860, p.444: Win[...], p.188.

BEJANZ, 23:02:1889, p.150. The adoption of this process in Australia could
be on account of the weather conditions.

Spons, op.cit., 1881, p.[...]p.535.
BEJANZ, 23:02:1889, p.150.

The production of bricks during the first few years of settlement would
not allow for a drying period of more than a couple of weeks.

From an 18205 former cross wall uncovered in the north—east ground floor
room of the Main Building of the Hyde Park Barracks, 1981 excavation.

Some good examples survive just out of Mudgee and others may be seen
in photographs of the Holterman Collection in the Mitchell Library.

Some are described as havi[...]have been done whent he first kiln ws constructed
in Sydney.

The above account taken largely from Wil[...]op.cit.,
p.709.

Wilson, op.cit., p.536. Earlier in the century, wood, brush, furze, straw,
brake, or[...]the list.

At the old kiln at Mudgee, great piles of timber were found in the vicinity
during a visit there in 1977.

The above information is a combination of Rees, op.cit., Brick, p.3; and
Wilson, op.cit., p[...]Winser, op.cit., p.230.

Holden, E.A. The History of the Brick, Tile and Clay Products Industries
in Australia. (Mangrovite Calendar) 1935, unpaginate[...]lns were being introduced by "one
or two firms", "in recent years", to avoid loss due to the irregular
temperatures in the clap.

Knight, op.cit., p.370.

Bricks dating[...]ge black
holes and block dots where some material of organic origin has burned out.

Anon. Bric[...]

The remains of clamps (flues, decomposed brick, brick clay, and[...]ing News, 01:02:1861, p.98. The example was noted in India. It
seems to me that the figures for the fu[...].
Ibid.

For example: Freeland, J.M. Architecture in Australia. Melbourne, 1968,
p.5; Cox, Alan. Brick[...]it., p.189.

Cox, op.cit., pp.9 and 15.

Journals of the House of Commons, 28 February 1725, p.593.
Ibid., p.594.[...]06:02:1857, p.135. Though, he was first mentioned in
1851 in connection with the 1851 Exhibition.

The[...]

Wilson, op.cit., p.533.[...]Assembly, Votes and Proceedings for 1838. Report of the
Committee of the Legislative Council (The Building Act), p.44.[...]tteries
Ltd. Dianiska, Young and Tay. Backgrounds of Melbourne. Brick, 1959. Thesis,
University of Melbourne, p.9, Faculty of Architecture. Though bricks of
the north tended to be thicker than those of the south.

Twelvetrees, op.cit., p.64.

Knight,[...]nd 379. On page 370 he believed that a cubic foot
of bricks weighed 115 lbs, and on p.379, 120 lbs.

Those bricks formed with a large proportion of organic materials or ash
would be lighter than those of pure clay and soil.

Ure, op.cit., p.443.

Mayes,[...]There is no reliable documentation on this aspect of brickmaking.
Private Tasmanian collection.[...]

The Builder, 19:04:1845, p.182. See p.615 of the 1844 edition.

Ibid., p.182. Breeze was also[...]could be substituted. Coke was reduced from coal in air—free "close
retorts" Breeze was produced from coals consumed in an air rich open grate
which retained the sulphur[...]p.615.
Ibid.

Some brickworks began to specialize in making white bricks, which had been
made famous through the developments surrounding the Great Exhibition
of 1851. See The Building News, 09:07:1858 p.VII. By the late 19505 others
were specializing in coloured glazed bricks for "Polychromatic Archite[...]Brick Co. Ltd. South Australia.

Low, D. Elements of Practical Agriculture, fifth ed., London 1847, p.[...]ay was churned by blades on a turning wheel.

One of the earliest to be reported in Britain was the US patent of Mr B.H.
Brown. The Builder, 20:09:1845, p.449.

U[...]e worked on the same principle.

Low, D. Elements of Practical Agriculture, 5th edition, London, 1847,
pp.261-264. This machine could produce tiles "of any shape and size", including
flat and roofing tiles and also bricks "of any shape".

Ibid., p.264. Earlier editions shoul[...]d, as often further editions
were merely reprints of old information.

Cox, op.cit., pp.37-39.

The Bu[...]lark, D.K. The Exhibited Machinery, A Cyclopaedia of the Machinery
Represented at the Internati[...]

249.

79

Spons' Dictionary of Engineering, London, 1881, p.82. for Ainslie. Ure, 1853,
op.cit., pp.277 and 278. Also illustrated in the 1860 and 1878 editions.

The Builder, 04:08:1[...]op.cit., pp.642 and 650—655.

Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of all Nations, 1851: Official and
Descriptive and I[...]itect, had patented the actual
brick design. None of the bricks are ascribed to Craven but perhaps the[...]t.

Ibid.

Ibid., 25:05:1866, p.351.

Illustrated in Spons' 1874, figures 1304, 1320, 1324, 1328 and 1[...]ure 1325.

Ibid., figure 1326.

Iron, The Journal of Science, Metals and Manufactures, (incorp. The
Me[...]ABCN, 16:07:1887, p.155.
C. Lynne, The Industries of NSW, 1882, pp.115 and 116.
Fieldwork, 1977.

Brady, G.S. Official Post Office Directory of the Building Trades, England
etc., 3rd edition, 1[...]that his occupation was mistaken
for his surname in the notice.

Ibid.

Ibid., 05:12:1846, p.5[...]

The Build[...]figure 240.
Ibid.
The English Mechanic and Mirror of Science, 23:04:1869, figures 1 and 2.

This was a strong factor in machine brickmaking of the 18805 to 19205 period
in Sydney which constantly led brickmakers to return[...]t Bros machines. See Partridge, T.(). Brickmaking
in New South Wales. John Sands Ltd, (late 1920s), pp[...]8:10:1888, p.126.
The English Mechanic and Mirror of Science, 23:04:1869, figure 2.

"Bradley and Crav[...]8505 as Bradley and Craven machines were promoted in
Chamberlain"s Catalogue of 1859. H. Chamberlain patented his inventions
duri[...]y later.

Letter from R.E. Craven, sales director of the present company, the Craven
Fawcett Group Limited, to Miss Olga Pavlov, dated 27:05:1976. A copy
of this letter was sent to Mr Alfred Barbara on 18:0[...]pp.1 and 2.

"Press" was often used as a synonym of "machine", not to be confused with
the type of press which re-pressed bricks from a wire cut or[...]e information on the machines Nos 1—3 was found in the R.E. Craven,
Letter 1976, pp.1—3; AB[...]

283. ABCN, 04:10:1890, p.24[...], p.23.

292. ABCN, 15:12:1888, p.541. An account in BEJANZ, 15:12:1888, [1.542 is not
quite as accura[...]Fawcett is often incorrectly rendered as Faucett in publications.
297. The Australasian Ironmonger, O[...]313. Ibid., p.168.

314. Byrne, A.T. Inspection of the Materials and Workmanship Employed in
Construction. N.Y. 1893, lst ed., p.19.

315. Ure[...]ightly moistured moulds and subjected
to 600 tons of pressure.

320. Ure, 1853, op.cit., p.277.

Partridge, op.cit., p.3.

Centennial History of New South Wales, 1888, (HE), p.102.
The Australas[...]"semi dry"
machine.

Visit to the Brickworks late in the 19705.
Partridge, op.cit., p.3.

Ibid., p.8.[...]7, op.cit., p.316.

Lyne, Charles, The Industries of New South Wales, 1882, p.115.
Ibid.

Partridge, o[...]Brody, 1887, op.cit., p.316.

The Railway Guide of N.S.W., 1881, p.65. Though the description[...]

BEJANZ, 23:0[...]Ure, 1860, op.cit., p.446. The Robert Schrivener of Shelton,
Staff. was'one-such patent.

The Builder[...]6. Hudson, op.cit., p.145.

Several are described in Spons, op.cit., pp.2181-2185. See also BEJANZ,
21[...]p.17. The
ANC gives the location as at "Roundwood in the West Riding of Yorkshire".

Griffin, op.cit.,[...]ANC, November 1963, p.17.

Index to NSW Letters of Registration of Invention, 1854-. 31:07:1887, No.154.
Ibid., No.1[...]ectural Ornament, 1880—1920. PhD Thesis, School
of Architecture, Melbourne University, p.14. The company began work in
1862. ANC, May 1961, p.31. See a late 18705 photograph in D. Bennett's
Melbourne’s Yesterdays — A Photo[...]p.3.

Ibid.

Ibid. One was dismantled and set up in Mr Hayes, Oaks Steam Brickworks
at Neutral Bay wi[...]d.) '

Nangle, J. Notes on Bricks and Brickmaking in and around Sydney. Engineering
Association of NSW Proceedings, 9, 1893/94, p.63.

Sydney Mail,[...]p.cit., p.63.

Ibid.

A similar situation existed in England by the 18403, where it was said that
the general use of stucco was encouraged because of the poor bricks. In
Australia, however, it was a genuine fashion. The[...]848,
p.34; reversal 20:11:1847, p.552.

The style in Australia was later called the "Federation[...]

Ibid.

Cox, op.cit., p.37. A drawing of the machine was published in 1841, see p.38.
Great Exhibition Catalogue, 1851,[...], 12:07:1851, p.438. The article was on the topic of "hollow bricks
etc."

Ibid., 17:08:1850, p[...]

488. Winser, op.cit., p.229.

489. Journals of the House of Commons, 28:02:1725; Cresy, op.cit., p.710. Was
of the opinion that red stocks were kiln burned and[...]J .M. Architect Extraordinary: The Life and Work of John Horbury
Hunt: 1838-1904. Cassell, 197[...]

The Builder, 14:12:1844, p.815.
Ibid.[...], 23:12:1848, p.623.

Edward Cresy, Encyclopaedia of Civil Engineering. New Impression, London
1880, p.710. The text and illustrations of the "new impression" appear to
date to the 18405[...]ugh neither the brick duty or any mention
is made of the famous machines of the 18505.

Ure, 1853, op.cit., p.270; Tomlinson,[...], op.cit., p.532.

Compare the general statements in Spons, 1881, op.cit., p.188 with Ure,
1879, op.ci[...]Ritchie, J.M. "The Development and Significance of Technical Education
in NSW 1880—1900". JRAHS, vol.55, p.245.

HRNSW, v[...]adic examples may have occurred. The irregularity of this brick leads
me to suspect that it was delibe[...]Collins, David. An Accountlof the English Colony in New South Wales, vol.1,
p.22 (edited by Br[...]

Collins,[...]Collins, op.cit., p.17.

Cobley, John, The Crimes of the First Fleet Convicts, A and R, 1985 edition,[...].cit., p.193.

Ibid. He also made the distinction in prices between delivered and "at the
kiln".

Cobl[...]n, R.J. The Second Fleet: A Comprehensive Listing of Convicts who
Safled in HMS Guardian, Lady Juliana, Neptune, Scarborough[...]eland, op.cit., p.146 (9% x 4% x 2—3/4).
Census of NSW, 1828.
See The Gazetteer of Sydney Brickmakers.

Worgan, George B. Journal of a First Fleet Surgeon. Library of Australian
History, Sydney, 1978, p.39. Worgan was referring to between the 23rd and
27th of February, "this last week", written on the 28th F[...]p.17.

HRNSW, vol.1, part 2, pp.435—572.

Found in the vicinity of the Old Government House site.
Worgan, op.cit., p[...]op.cit., p.59.

Hunter, J. An Historical Journal of Events at Sydney and at Sea 1787-1792,
J.[...]

Thompson, George, Private Journal in Slavery and Famine, London 1794.
(He was in the Colony in 1792.)

HRNSW, vol.l, part 2, p.190.
Collins, op.[...]0.

Ibid., p.14.

Noah, William. Voyage to Sydney in the Ship Hillsborough 1798-1799. Library
of Australian History, Sydney, 1978, p.69.

Collins,[...]ut as Tench gives us these figures under the
date of November 1790, this seems unlikely.

HRNSW, vol.1, part 2, p.435. There were 12 men "most of whom" had been
employed at brickmaking in Sydney. The venture was unsuccessful because
of a deficiency in the "clay". (There are no suitable clays o[...]

Richie, P. The Bonwick Transcripts, v[...].J. Brickmaking and Mudgee. BA(HonsL Thesis, Fine Arts
Department, University of Sydney, 1977.

Bigge, J.T. Report of the Commissioner of Enquiry, on the State of Agriculture
and Trade in New South Wales. Australiana Facsimile Edition No[...].

Ibid., pp.l9 and 20.

Cunningham, P. Two years in NSW, London 1827, vol.1, p.94.
Sydney Gazette, 13[...]ningham, op.cit., p.66.

lbid., p.63.

NSW Report of the Legislative Assembly, Votes and Proceedings Session
of 1838, part 2. Report . . . to Consider The Buildi[...]S, vol.2, 1902, p.245.

Maclehose, J. The Picture of Sydney, 1838, Sydney, 1838.
Fowles, J. Sydney in 1848. Facsimile edition, Sydney, 1962.
JRAHS, vol[...]ibrary, Doc.2883 unpaginated).

See the Gazetteer of Sydney brickmakers.

Ibid.

Ibid.

The above information was abstracted from lists of precisely dated brick.

None of the brickmakers of the 18705 to 18905 who left records assert anything
prior to the close of the 18603 as the very earliest.

Holden, E.A. The History of the Brick, Tile and Clay Industries in Australia.
Mangrovite Calendar 1935 (unpaginated).

Session of the Legislative Council of NSW, Session for 1857, (vol.II), p.333.
Hassall,[...]l, M.L. A1677, pp.923—926.

Industrial Progress of NSW, Being a Report of the Inter-Colonial Exhibition
of 1870, at Sydney. Sydney 1871, p.458.

See The Gazetteer and the Centennial History of NSW, 1888, biographical
section (which dif[...]

The greater value of the following Gazetteer applies to the latter half
of the nineteenth century and later when brickmakers[...]sometimes several brickmakers burned their bricks in the same
kiln). Sometimes the moulds of machine—made bricks included initials or even
names set in the frog, for example: "R. COOK", Rupert Cook; "R[...]lder; unfortunately, many yards used the same set of symbols. An
arrow indicated that a brick was Gove[...]18305; the more elaborate arrows sometimes
found in buildings of a much later date indicates a mischievous brickma[...]d 1788 to ca.1956. The chief sources are
composed of all the available post office and manufacturing d[...]1839 to 1956, but even this period is not equal in each part of its coverage.

‘ Directories which give fairly specific details of address. Directaries before
this period are sporadic and incomplete, (rarely mentioning the "lowly" trade
of brickmaker). The manufacturing directories from 1[...]ion (under the particular headings) than the name of the company
or maker and the suburb: unfortunately, gaps exist in the run of these directories
(in available collections) during the 19505 and 19603[...]ailable for
reference.3

It should be remembered, in the case of the directories, that the
information was collected during the previous year of stated issue; but this
has not been allowed for in the Gazetteer. In a few instances the list for the
previous year was duplicated in toto for the next. The spelling of names often
vary but are usually corrected in subsequent issues. Not too much emphasis
should be placed on the exact wording of a company name (though, variations
are acknowledged in the text). In some cases certain names have been omitted
from one directory but continue to be listed in others, resulting in a weakness
in the Gazetteer. Changes of address, which have been noted in the Gazetteer,
often only indicate a change of name of a street, suburb or area. Formerly,
some suburbs were only roughly defined, creating anomalies because of overlaps
with other suburbs. In some cases where a brickyard was surrounded by two
of more streets, it was not unusual for the access t[...]e changed
from street to street without any shift of the actual yard. By consulting early
maps or street directories, ostensible shifts of site may be confirmed or
otherwise. A typical case involved the site of the present day Camdenville
Park, Newtown which was in the hands of a Goodsell by the late 1840s and
was probably kno[...]nd
Pipe, Tile Works Ltd". Just about every member of the Goodsell family was
given an address location at that site at some time in Sands' Directories. The
earliest address for the[...]be forgiven for assuming that there were a score
of brickyards involved over the years, whereas an examination of early maps,
with the help of some incidental references, reveal that on[...]

The period 1788 to 1856 is poorly represented in The Gazetteer because
of the nature of the source material. Up to 1800 only four brickma[...]and Samuel Wheeler, as they headed various gangs of brickmakers.
Each "master" or "overseer", however[...]but only the 1828 census6 has been culled because of easy accessibility.
Incidental references have be[...]ds will be processed to close the gaps. The value
of The Gazetteer, however, is chiefly applicable to[...]m the 18405 onwards7 but chiefly from
the 1870s.

In a strict sense, even the period which is well covered, only a fraction
of those involved were listed: In some yards up to 100 men were employed.

There are not many categories of building materials which would benefit
from the compilation of a gazetteer as an aid to dating. The only materia[...]would be those with individual markings and were
of an enduring nature. Tiles, (wall, floor or roofin[...]ted from Britain

before the 19205 and studies of markings and makers have been published within
re[...]me work has also been done on the major producers of roofing
tiles (local and overseas).9 Though the subject of tiles would make a more
worthwhile subject for a[...]nuously made (and imported) from the initial
year of settlement to the present day.

ALEXANDRIA BRICK and TIL[...]cific parade, Dee Why

ANDINA, Giuseppe (abstract of article)
1891: son of the most noted Italian brickmaker, Firma A[...]

ANDREW, E.T.
Secretary of the City Brick Co. Ltd., in 1911 (as listed in the Directories)

ANDREWS, William
1886: George s[...]d, St Peters

ANNABEL and JONES BRICKYARDS
Listed in "The Echo" as one of the principal industries of St Peters13

ARGYLES, A.R.
Manager, 1913—1915, of the Northern Suburbs Brick Co. Ltd.

ARGYLL BRICK[...]—1932: Park road, Enfield

ASCHE, John
Formerly of the Warren Brick Co., and later representative of the
Metropolitan Brick Co., for the North Sydney area by 1902.14 He was
manager of the Austral Brick Company in 1912.

ASCOTT, George
1871—1904: 1871, Balmain[...]ott".

ASHCOT’I‘, George
1819—1828: Arrived in Sydney in 1819. By 1828, was working for John
Harris, Bathu[...]27—1932.

A long gap occurred from 1932 to 1947 in the directories. In 1947
it emerged as, "Ashfield Brick Co. Pty. Ltd"[...], "Lace Bricks a Specialty"; 1917, "Manufacturers
of every description of Bricks.

96

AUBURN BRICK, TILE and POTTERY COMPANY[...]IN, Thomas
1888: Archer street, North Willoughby. In 1889, Thomas Austen [sic]
was listed as the manager of the North Willoughby Brickyards

AUSTRAL BRICK CO[...]as William
K. Dawes. Dawes was the great grandson of George Dowes, representing
the fourth generation of the family to engage in brickmaking in Australia.

Although the first directory referenc[...]ick Company.

Products; 1910-1931, "Manufacturers of all classes of bricks".

AUSTRALIAN BRICK COMPANY
1911—1919: L[...]or from 1912 to 1914. Thomas
Cottrill was manager in 1915.
The company was registered by 1911 as the Australian Brickworks
Limited. The name of this company was also called, by 1919, the "Lion[...]verpool road, Enfield
This company first appeared in 1911 with a registered office at
58 Hunter street[...]st "Australian
Brickworks" may have been a vranch of their operations.

AUSTRIAN PIGMENT and FI[...]

Managar (5") of Shannon's Brick, Tile and Pottery Co. Ltd., listed in 1928
and 1930.

BAILEY, J. '
1885: Railway road, Prospect and Sherwood

BAKER

One of the elected directors in 1886 of the Eight Hours Co-operative
Brick, Tile and Pott[...]ewcastle, he may have begun his Australian career in Sydney.”
BAKER, Thomas

1890-1894: Highgate str[...]e largest brickworks, along with
lves' brickworks in the Colony18 and had received a wide reputation
during the 18805.19 A description of 1893 revealed the manufacture
of "bricks, drainpipes, terracotta and sanitary ware".20

A fuller description was given in 1894 where skillful burning (and
use of clay), resulted in bricks of red hues and white bricks. The works
also produce[...]den vases, finials, panels
and "crestines".

Some of the better class wares were said to ahve been used at
the residence of a Mr Phillip Charley at Richmond. The figures and[...]189222 to 1904 and
Mr Symonds as "superintendent" in 1894.

Messrs Bakewell Bros. were comprised of three brothers, William,
John and Thomas. The latter two died in their 405 and William died late
in 1916 or early in 1917, aged about 65. William had five sons but on[...]. as "Brick and Pottery Works"
for the first time in 1897 but were listed under "Potteries and Potters[...]500,000 machine
made bricks at £2/5/0 per 1,000 in 1902.24

A double pressed and moulded brick machine by Fawcett's of Leeds
was first used at the Beulah brickworks.25[...]a; chemical and sanitary goods; and "Pottery Ware
of all descriptions".

By 1908/1909, they advertised, "Chemical and Sanitary Goods and
Pottery Ware of all descriptions".

Part of their operations included the Beulah Brickworks.

BAKEWELL and CURLEWIS
Proprietors of the Warren Brick 00., listed from 1912—1[...]

BECKET, James
1790: Arrived in June 1790 and by November had a gang of 52 men at
Parramatta.26 He was sent from Sydney in September in order to make

99

bricks for a large storehouse and a range of barracks.27 Becket may

have remained in the area, as he was permitted a grant at Toongabb[...]ks were founded by Josiah Gentle. and specialized in the dry
process. After his death it was so[...]

BLOODWORTH, James Bellamy
A son of James Bloodworth, was said to have supervised con[...]road, Marrickville

BLUNT, Charles
1883: Manager of Waddington's Steam Brickworks, Waterloo road,
Ale[...]North Willoughby

BOARD, T.A.
Listed as secretary of the Standsure Brick Co. from 1889 to 1897.[...]

BOWYER, Samuel
1811—1828: By 1828 he worked in Sydney, Sussex street

BOYCE, William
1819—1828[...]radford and Co. exhibited at the Paris Exhibition of 1867 the
following pieces: one square fire brick;[...]ry street, Burwood

BREEDON, J.
Listed as manager of the Merrylands Steam Brick works from 1896 to
189[...]BRETT, James
18805/18905: After the introduction of steam machinery, he became
a shopkeeper fo[...]

BRICKMASTERS ASSOCIATION — Brickm[...]WORKS (PTY) LIMITED

1934—1965: This was formed in 1934 by a number of Sydney brick
manufacturers. It purchased the Thornleigh Brickworks in 1938 from
the Suburban Land and Investment Co. Lt[...]r brick manufacturers from
1941 to at least 1965. In 1952, their office was located at 12 Castlereagh[...]Brothers

BROWN — see Lloyd
BROWN, A.H.

Listed in 1898 as proprietor for the Crown Plastic a[...]

"William Brown, of Ashfield", "among the builders I knew in those
days", (1880s/18905), "he was a man of wonderful disposition, a thorough
gentleman, as h[...]med by all who came into
contact with him". A son of the founder of the original firm of Brown
and Sons, builders of Sydney. The father, "a small, active man, known
in the trade as "Possum Brown" on account of his manner and ability
to climb and run on very h[...]lliam and his brother, John,
under the trade name of "W. and J. Brown", did the brickwork of a large
portionof the Technological School at Ultimo.37

BROWN, William
1799: He arrived in July 1799, as a brickmaker.38

BROWN and COMPANY[...]AN, John
1854, 1864 and 1865: Waterloo
John Bryan of Newtown exhibited bricks for smelting purposes
at the Paris Exhibition of 1855.39

BRYAN, William
1844 and 1845: Glebe

BRY[...]road, Parramatta; 1863, Ultimo street.
He arrived in Sydney in 1823, aged about 20 years, on a seven year
sentence. In 1828, he worked as a labourer for Mr Caghill, Kir[...]: Merrylands, near Parramatta, brickmaker.
Listed in 1886 as a "New Insolvent" with liabilities of £150/15/6];
assets £11.4l

BULLOCK, F.H.[...]

BURRELL, W.
Listed as secretary of the Gurney Patent Brickmaking Co. in 1890.

BURWOOD BRICKWORKS
1913—1932: Cheltenham road, Burwood
Began production in 1913, on part of the former estate of John
Dawson. Originally controlled by the Suburba[...]established
its headquarters. Many Burwood houses in the area were built of the
bricks from this company.43

BUSHELL, A.
Listed as proprietor of the Crown Plastic and Fire Brick Co. in 1899

BUTCHER BROTHERS and COMPANY, (LIMITED by 1[...]).
Applied for a Central Railway Station contract in

CARDIN, w.
Listed as Manager of the Excelsior Brickworks from 1900 to 1902

CARLT[...]GTON STEAM BRICK COMPANY

1885-1953, (note change of name): Barwon Park road, Alexandria

These works began business operation in about 1885 on a site where
brickworks had earlier[...]least 1892, (as listed); Henry Turner was listed in 1893. R.J. Nicholson
was listed as secretary duri[...]t 1930, (as listed).

There appears to be a break in the listings of the company from
1931 to 1940.

CARTWRIGHT see Ke[...]CARTWRIGHT, George
1851: Pyrmont road

CARVER
One of the elected directors in 1886 of the Eight Hours Co—operative
Brick, Tile[...]

CASTNER, G.L.
Proprietor of the Excelsior Brickworks, 1893 and 1894.

CAVALCH[...]9, Barwon Park, Victoria street, St Peters, "Rear of Council
Chambers"; 1920—1965: 2 Albert street, St Peters, "Rear of St Peters
Town Hall".
One authority believed that[...]later.47 .
Products: 1915 and 1916, "all classes of Br1cks"; "Highest quality

of Common Place and Moulded Bricks". By 1936, the company had a
showroom at the Metropolitan Building, corner of Hunter and Bligh streets.

CHALKING, John
1875—[...]1863: Cooks River road

CHARLESWORTH, J.
Manager of the Jubilee Steam Brickworks, 1902—1904;[...]

CLARK, G.T.

Listed as[...]1879 and 1880, at Reserve
road, North Willoughby. In 1879, he received good comments and an
"honourabl[...]bricks at the Sydney
International Exhibition.48 In 1886 he received the following comments
for exhib[...]ydney: ". . . shows some very excellent specimens of fire brick, fire
clay, terracotta clay, ornamenta[...]ulated for his good taste and having the services
of a "clever and artistic designer".49

COLCLOUGH,L
Listed as secretary at the Refractory Brick Co. in 1919.

COLLINS, A. Harrison
Manager of the Gore Hill Brickworks, 1890—1893.

COLLINS,[...]started at St Peters by W.G. Collins and Company in
1878 and by about 1884 and that there were six such works in Sydney
and seven in Melbourne.50

COLLISON, James
1863: Silver street[...]ellow road, Marrickville

COOK, J.
Elected as one of the directors in 1886 of the Eight Hours
Co—operative Brick, Tile and Po[...]or Rupert?)
1864: Waterloo

COOK, Rupert (LIMITED in 1918)
Continued under the name Cook's (Rupert), B[...]905, Denby street,
Marrickville; 1906-1922, comer of Burwood road and Mitchell streets,
Enfield.

Rupert Cook was born about 1831 and died in August 1919.51 He
had evidently been introduced to the trade by the mid 18405, probably
as part of a family concern.52

In 1873, he returned (?) to England for six years and worked in
the brick trade at Manchester. In about 1880, he established his new
works at Denby[...]for his special ornamental and terracotta works "of all kinds", not to
mention the commons. His white double pressed bricks were considered
the best in the Colony, so much so that he could barel[...]

In 1888, his bricks were used throughout the Central[...]Light and Power Supply Company
Limited. The best of Cook's red facing bricks were used for facing wor[...]om about the
early 18805. The frequent occurrence of his "coloured" bricks, including
those of special shapes seen around Sydney with "R. Cook", impressed
in the frogs, suggest that he was one of the major producers of such
bricks.

The works survived to about 1962 un[...]lliam
1815—1828: By the latter date was working in Sydney, Clarence street.

COOK, Willia,
1858-1871[...]reet, Enfield". The abbreviation, "Pty",
appeared in 1952 and 1962.

COOPER, Charles and COMPANY
1920:[...]reet, Canterbury
Cottle Brothers were composed ’of Israel, William, George and
Elijah of Croydon Park, Croydon. They obtained a patent for a kiln for
burning bricks, tiles and pottery in 1888.57

COTTLE and SANDS
1892—1895: Hampton st[...]et, Canterbury

COTTRIL, Thomas
Listed as manager of the Australian Brick Co. in 1915

COVER, Peter
1890: Chisholm road, Auburn

110

COX, Abe and Jack
They left brickmaking later in the nineteenth century to become
jockeys. Abe being famous in Western Australia.58

COX, John
1828: South Head[...]listed proprietor
for 1893 and 1894 was C. Bowen. In 1895, A. Falder was listed as proprietor
(1’) A[...]er source claimed that the works were established in Webb
street in 1879 using capital from David Jones' (who owned the land).
The works were said to have closed in 1930 and the pit was utilized as
a dump and a fac[...]1888, they were producing "plastic pressed bricks of a rich
mahogany colour". These bricks were used in Normal Self's residence
at Ashfieldfil

In 1889, Button, Peters and Goodsell, constructed th[...]eet,
Ashfield.
Lamb Brothers were the proprietors in 1884 but by 1892, Frederick
Lamb was liste[...]

Curlewis was listed as the proprietor of the Warren Brick Co. from 1902
to 1911.

CURRAN,[...]d, Marrickville

Managing Director and proprietor of Standsure Brickworks from
1886 to 1910.

DALEY, T. Stanley
Listed as proprietor of Standsure Brickworks from 1916 to 1924.
T.S. and[...]two different people as they
were listed as such in the April 1919 telephone directory with different[...]uced locally.64

DAVIES, R.W.
Listed as secretary of the Croydon Steam Brick Co., 1910-1914.

DAVIES'[...]red — see Austral Brick Company
He was involved in the Sydney brickmaking scene since as a boy

around 1881 and in later years wrote a series of articles for the CPJA
(1935).

He was a son of W.K. Dawes and managed the New Austral Brick
Comp[...]treet, Cooks River road
George Dawes was a native of Sussex, England. He was the
grandfather of Alfred Dawes and great grandfather of William K. Dawes
of the Austral Brick Co. He started making bricks in Sydney about 1845.

DAWES, Naason
1880: Mitchell road, Alexandria
A son of George Dawes. He married the daughter of Alfred Tye
of Brickmaking fame.55 He was listed as manager of Bakewell Brothers'
from 1891—1904 and of the NSW Brick Co. Ltd. from 1904—1906.

DAWES,[...]see Austral Brick Company
He was a great grandson of George Dawes and a manager of the
Austral Brick Company. He was the founder and[...]ad, Petersham (office and Stephen
street, Balmain in 1912 and 1913); 1912—1915, Kerr street, North Waratah
(works).

Products: 1912—1915 "Makers of Sewer Pipes and Fittings also
Terra Cotta[...]

DIXON, Henry
Dixon, "a gentleman well known in commercial circles", was the general
manager for[...]66

DOBSON - see Gannon

DOWNTON, A.G.
Proprietor of the Excelsior Brickworks, 1895 and 1896, (as listed).

DOWNTON, H.G.
Proprietor of the Excelsior Brickworks, 1894, 1897 and 1898, (as listed).

DOWNTON, W.J.
Proprietor of the Excelsior Brickworks from 1903—1915. The works were
in the hands of Trustees in 1916. However, even by April 1919, he was[...]

EDWARDS, George L.
Listed as manager of St Peters Brick Co. Ltd., 1915-1919

EDWARDS, Hen[...]Brickfields, Alexandria.
His first brickyard was in the Brickfields area in George street.
He had four sons. William James an[...]r street, St Leonards

At 80, he was still active in the brick trade in 1935. He established
the Waterloo and Waratah Bri[...]by hand. They later moved to Hurstville and lived in adjoining houses.
The partnership failed. James s[...]le and Mr Gardener
at Enfield.

Henry had £2,000 of shares in the Mortdale Co. Jones left and joined
a Company in Waterloo and then the Carlton Brickworks a[...]

The area of the Works was 14 acres, containing an estimated volume
of clay to last for 50 years. The Works boosted the[...]facture enamelled tiles "and various descriptions
of pottery ware",76

The Works appear to have[...]

EMERY and BRAD[...]e street, Enfield.
A. Jolly was listed as manager in 1915

ENFIELD BRICKWORKS PTY. LIMITED
1956—1965[...]94,
the machinery was started for the manufacture of the "Knox Improved
French Ball-Bearing Tiles".7'7

The company's pit was later used for the dumping of rubbish.

ENMORE, Benjamin
1851: Pyrmont road

EP[...]astwood
The Eastwood Brickworks appear to be part of the same company,
sharing the same address and te[...]oads, Dundas.
Alexander's father received a grant of land in Dundas and he opened
a brickyard at Terry road. He served in the local council as an alderman.78

EYLES and SA[...]. The last works
address seems to suggest a shift of site.

The following is a list of managers and proprietors as noted from
Sands: Don[...]; W.J. Downton,
proprietor, 1903—1915, trustees of W.J. Downton, 1916; W. Cardin,
manager, 19[...]

FA[...]15,521,000 bricks
had been made there, 14,500,000 of which had been sold and delivered.
Wages had amounted to 17,000 pounds.79

Products; "all classes of Bricks, Drain Pipes and Fittings".
(1915—1931).[...]rks

FEDERAL BRICKWORKS
This was the earlier name of the Federal Brick Co. Ltd., (from 1901
to 1907)[...]n for their pottery, they received a first degree
of merit for their bricks and tiles in 1879 (as well as drainpipes, terracotta
va[...]

FLEM[...]1934: Bankstown
This appears to be another branch of the company mentioned above.

FLEMINGTON BRICK COMPANY LIMITED
1934—1937: This appears to be an extension of the Flemington Brick,
Tile and Pottery Pty. Co. L[...]dcombe; 1919—1932,
Parramatta road, Flemington. In 1910, they had a registered office at
107 Pitt street. In 1911, it was at 2b Castlereagh street (Castlereag[...]Sydney Brick Company
A Peter Fletcher was listed in 1861 as at 25 Kensington street and in
1879, at Balmain road, Leichhardt.

FLETCHER PART[...]rdown.

Enoch Fowler was listed under brickmakers in 1879 and 1883. As
a potter, however, he appeared in 1844/1845, 1851 and from 1863 to
1880.

He was pr[...]plain tiles (12 x 16 inches), and offered "bricks of every description made

119

In 1935, it was maintained that Fowlers had the "nex[...]rks, (Goodlet and Smith after Tyre and Goodsell). In 1877,
they advertised themselves as "Fowlers Pottery and Patent Brickworks".i‘]3

Enock Fowler was born in Tyrone, Ireland and came to Sydney by
the mid 18305. He established his works in 1837.84

FOWLER, Robert
1880—1894: George stree[...]ly concerned with pottery.
Robert Fowler was born in 1839 at his parents' home "in Parramatta
street, Sydney". He had been active in local government since the 1860s
and became Mayor of Sydney inin 1919).

Fowler, of course, made bricks continually from the 18605 bu[...]til this period that they were regularly included in the lists
under brick manufacturers.

Various bra[...]street, Newcastle, branch or depot, was included
in the Sands' advertisements and by 1910, the Macqua[...]n pipes; insulators;
fire bricks and "all classes of pottery".

FOWLER, Samuel
1815—1828: By[...]

GAR[...]

Products: 1908—1931, "Manufacturer of Every Description of Bricks".

GENTT, C. and J.
1873: Mitchell road (S[...]ERRING, Henry

1880: Sydenham road, Marrickville

In 1888, he lived in Emily street, where he was recorded as having
lived there as early as 1877. He was born in 1820 in Kent and learned
the trade there. He emigrated in 1839, landing in Sydney. He lived in
Newtown for 40 years and then shifted to Marrickv[...]rickmaking. He erected
St John's Tavern, Newtown, in 1844 and assisted in building St Stephen’s
church.87

GIBBEN(S) - se[...]treet, North
Willoughby; (1888 and 1889, addition of "Gore Hill" and in 1889, "Herbert

street and Weltham street").

Joh[...]E WORKS
1893—1896: Herbert street, Willoughby
O'Masters was a lessee in 1893.

GIBSON and LAMB
1883 and 1884: Gore's Hill, North Willoughby
Gibsons appear to have been in the same area from about 1883

to 1896.

G[...]

GILLESPIE

One of the founding directors of the Eight Hours Co—operative
Brick, Tile and Pottery Co. Ltd., in 1886.

GLAZED BRICK and POTTERY COMPANY LIMITED
1[...]ANY LIMITED
1921: Carrington

GODFREY, E.
Manager of the Industrial Brick Co. Ltd. from 1911-1913 (as[...]illiam Buick, brickmaker,
was his partner by 1838 in the building of the famous Lennox bridge.

In 1839, "Robert Gorch", Marsden street, Parramatta,[...]ent, Prospect, is mentioned, (probably the result of cut backs due
to the 1893 depression); 1909, 767[...]d the first sawmill using machinery. For the rest of the
century, they had one of the largest sawmilling concerns producing machine
saw timber, machine mouldings and a great variety of ready made doors,
windows etc.89 By 1865, they ex[...]aterloo but it appears to have failed as a result of the building of one
of the first Gurney tunnel kilns. A brick plant was[...]he works at Granville
had eclipsed all the others in producing bricks and terracotta. Although
it is s[...]anville works (Crescent street) ceased operations
in 1956, entries in the Directories still refer to it up to 1965 and[...]h, Holden maintained that the plant was the first of its
kind with a (patent) continuous kiln and stea[...]first to produce
machine made bricks. J. Goodsell of Bowral (— see Goodsell), claimed
that al[...]

Alfred Goodsell may have been a brother of Frederick John Goodsell.

His nephews took over h[...]family came out from Sussex, England and
arrived in Sydney about 1838/1839. They settled along the banks of the
Lane Cove river, which was considered "the country" in those days.
Goodsell was apparently a farmer as h[...]erchant.94 Around 1848 and 1849, his sons settled in Newtown
and took over a brickyard established by[...]erick John
Goodsell was still living at Lane Cove in 1851 but must have shifted
to Newtown soon after.[...]rickworks or "Goodsell Brothers", after the death of Frederick by about
1882. An 1888 account stated that the first brick machine installed in
NSW was installed at these works in 1869 and operated for ten years,
producing many f[...]nts state that bricks from this machine were used in the facade
of Farmer's "new building" on the corner of Pitt and Market streets.
One stated that the firs[...]came from the first brick machine to be installed in the
Colony but mentioned that, although plans were made to construct the
building in 1869, it was not begun until 1873.97 It could be[...]did not operate until 1872/1873 as there is a gap in the
Directory entries for Goodsell from 1871 to 1[...]) but the
last solo entry for Alfred Tye occurred in 1867. Judging by a description
given by a grandson of Alfred Tye, this early machine must have been
the[...]rk). — see Goodsell Brothers for a continuation
of the account of this brickyard.

GOODSELL, Henry Wesley

1[...]

GOODSELL BROTHERS
1885-1890: 1885, Lord st[...]cks were
mainly wire cuts which were then pressed in a manually operated press;
these bricks were know[...]essed" bricks and were used for
facing the fronts of buildings.101

They installed a huge Centennial continuous kiln but it failed due
to the unsuitability of the clay and it was demolished and the fittings
s[...]ce the 18705
and were considered the leading firm in this class of bricks by 1888.103
The bricks for the Railway Institute of NSW, opened on 14:03.1891, came
from Goodsell‘s[...]sed bricks,
with carnices; string courses; sills; of brick. The %lain bricks were
considered to be excellent for the angle moulded bricks.1 4

In part, the Railway Institute building may have been the downfall
of Goodsell Brothers. During the early part of 1890, there was an unusually
prolonged period of rain which retarded the drying of bricks. Goodsell
Brothers were not able to supply[...]g handed over to an official assignee
as a result of bankruptcy in 1890. A desperate move to keep the works
financial resulted in the offering of shares to form a new company in
March 1890 but nothing came of H.105 ‘

125

G[...]Reserve road, Willoughby.

This brickyard is one of the few reasonably documented of the
early machine brickworks. It was opened in 1888 and was owned by the
Land Company of Australasia Limited, but had operated earlier as[...]— see Whiting, G.R.).

The works were commenced in October 1887, on the designs of
A. Harrison Collings (managing director), by T. S[...]e Hoffman
kiln was built on the oval plan instead of the original circular one. It
had 16 chambers hol[...]00 fire bricks to build.
The chimney was 140 feet in height.107 Two of Platt's four stamper
brick machines were installe[...]managing director, Mr Colling's, had been manager of the
"Hoffman" Patent Steam Brick Company's works[...]cks for the Lands Office which had begun building in May. Though
by late 1890 some, perhaps 250,000, were also supplied by Woodley and
Company of St Peters.110 Gore Hill also supplied the bricks[...]ke forced the company to put out their kiln fires in October,
1890. In February 1891, the fires were relit and Mr Collin[...]e
had been supplied by Messrs Blanks and Levebure of Invicta Ironworks
at Glebe and Bradley and Craven machine produced semi plastic bricks
and were being used in the Australia Hotel (4 million), and were also
on[...]and the North Shore
Railway.112

An advertisement of March 1891, claimed that they produced the[...]

Mr A.H. Collings was[...]for 4 years before 1888.116 (—see Land
Company of Australia and Vulcan Brickworks).

GRANT, Robert
He was managing director of the Oakes Steam Brick Co. during
1886 to 1888 at[...]rade and fuel business
(as well as being a dealer in galvanized iron), and by 1888, his monthly
output of coal averaged 700 tons. He was probably one of the major
supplilelr; to the brick manufacturers of the St Leonards/Neutral Bay
area.

GRAY, William[...]road, Epping; 1914—1932, Midson road, Eastwood.
In 1916, a city office was listed at 375 George stre[...]OMPANY

Merrylands

This companay was established in 1878 by Arthur Todd Holroyd
("Judge" Holroyd). In 1886, it was taken over by Goodlet and Smith and
in 1891, it received a Hoffman kiln with the earlier[...]Junction Brickworks. Several
works were operating in this area, (formerly referred to as Government
ro[...]eet], Prospect and Sherwood).

GREEN, Mr
A native of Manchester who spent his whole career in England
and Australia in the brick trade. He arrived in Australia in 1877 and
became a manager for Messrs C. and E. Millars, railway contractors,
on the Tabarook and Yea line in Victoria. Subsequently he became manager
of Vickery's Vulcan Brickworks.119

GREEN, Thomas
18[...]hn
1826-1828: Greenhatch probably did not operate in Sydney, as he was
working for George Forbes at Ed[...]E. (ACIS)
He was listed as secretary and manager of the Ashfield Brick Co. Ltd.
from 1916 to 1918.

G[...]Bathurst.

GREY, W.
Grey was manager to John Try in 1887 and Try's Brickworks from

1890 to 18[...]

GUDGEON, Eric
Listed as manager of the Ashfield Brick Co. Ltd. from 1927 to 1932. .[...]eet, (office); 1892, Victoria road, Marrickville.
In 1890, W. Burrell was listed as secretary and in 1892, Alfred
Leggatt as manager.

HAILER, A.
1886[...]Halverson became a grocer after the introduction of steam
machinery. 1 20

HAMMOND, G.
1883: R[...]

As a convict, he eventually became an overseer of the Government
brickworks at Brickfield Hill. He was instrumental in making the first
sandstock bricks composed of lime, ash and sand. As a reward, he was
allocated a grant of 100 acres along the southern bank of Walli Creek.
The grant later passed to the Bucknell family, the Hannans moving to
the opposite side of Arncliffe street (number 112). Reuben died in 1852,
his son David resided there for many years.121

HANSON, Charles
1890—1893: Albion street, Parramatta
In 1891, the words "brick mould", appear between his[...], Waterloo road, Alexandria

Abel Harber was born in England in 1834 and arrived in Sydney
in 1854. From the start he was involved in brickmaking. In 1867, he
accepted a railway contract on the Toomb[...]g up a new plant with all the latest
improvements in machinery, (during the 188119.122

HARBER, Abel a[...]Abel Harber was the first to have made a success of the Gurney
patent tramway kiln before 1888. He was assisted by two sons at his
works.123 He was also one of the Guarantors for the Sydney Brick Company
in 1893.

HARBER, Elias J.
Manager of Newtown Brickworks during 1899 and 1900

H[...]

HARRIS, Thomas
1827—1887: Harris arrived in Sydney in 1827 by the Manilus. He was
allocated to Thomas Street of Sussex street as a brickmaker. He married
Harriet Bullen (1817—1884), at Sydney in 1842. He afterwards moved
to Cambelltown.124

HAR[...]ad, Petersham.
They are listed as the proprietors ofof Castlereagh
street as brickmaker.

HASEMER[...]

HILLARD, Thomas
1[...]

HOPPING, B.
1895: Kings road, Fivedock

HOP[...]s, South Head road by 1828.

HORDER, T.
Secretary of the Enfield Park Brick Co. Ltd. during 1913 and 1[...]COMPANY
1897: 237—239 Castlereagh street (agent in tiles?)

HUDSON, John H.
1873: Elswick str[...]

HUNTINGDON, Willia[...]16:04:1822, at Reading Berks, England
and arrived in Sydney around 1850. He married Charlotte Crisford[...]D
1941—1965: Mortdale
This is the later styling of the Hurstville Steam Brick Co. Ltd.,
thoug[...]

The works were opened late in August of 1886 with Messrs Edwards
and Gardiner as managers and about 100 hands.131 The works were closed
temporarily in 1888 because of the heavy railway freight charges, throwing
about 125 men and boys out of work and deprived the railway of about
£3,000 per annum. The Company was to remai[...]pany was a guarantor for the Sydney Brick Company in
1893. Their bricks were stated to weigh (on avera[...]Brick Co. Ltd.".

HUTTON, S.E.
Listed as manager of the State Brickworks during 1912 and 1913

HYDE,[...]aldtown.134
Frederick Ives and his family arrived in NSW in 1855 and started
the Macdonaldtown brickworks. l-le resided in Rochford street,
Macdonaldtown. By 1890, Ives' works were seen as one of the principal
industries at Macdonaldtown (with Bakewell's).135

IVES, George
Son of Frederick Ives and resided with his father. He was born
in 1853 in Brentwood, Essex. He was educated in Sydney and in 1883,
was elected for four years as a member of the local council and became
Mayor for one term.36

JOINER, Thomas J.
Manager of the Excelsior Brickworks from 1910—1938 (as listed).

JOLLY, A.
Manager of Enfield Brick and Pipe Works, listed in 1915.

JONES, D. 1844 and 1845: Glebe
Listed as "[...]urch street, Balmain

JONES, G.
Listed as manager of the Punchbowl Brick and Tile Works in 1914

JONES, Jacob138
1817—1820: Parrama[...]

JONES and ANNABEL BRICKYARDS
Listed as one of the principal industries of St Peters by 1890.140

JUBILEE STEAM BRICKWORKS[...]rth, manager.

JUDD, Harold T.

Listed as manager of the Hurstville Steam Brickworks Ltd. from
1909 to[...]W.G. - see W.P. Judd

JUDD, W.P.
Listed as lessee of the Hurstville Steam Brickworks Ltd. from 1900

to 1903. In 1900, the office was given as 28 York street and[...]; 1952, Judd street, Mortdale
Products, as listed in 1922; "Plain and Fancy Bricks", "Bricks
delivered to any part of Illawarra district".

JUNCTION BRICKWORKS[...]

KING, John
1790—1810: A master bricklayer in Sydney who had a workforce of 18
by November 1790. He worked for a Mr Scot of Hammersmith, London,
by 1784.142 He was listed until September 1810 as a brickmaker "in the
Brickfields" and left for England soon after.”3 He remained a
superintendent ofof the Kuring—gai Brick and Pottery Works.

LANCEL[...]t, North Willoughby

LANCELEY, E.R.
Listed as one of the proprietors of the North Sydney Brick and
Tile 00., from[...]

LAND COMPANY OF AUSTRALIA LIMITED

A large investment company who financed the setting up of the
Gore Hill Brickworks, Lane Cove road, North Sgdney. Their office was
located at the corner of Pitt and Bridge streets.14

LANGTON and BEAZELEY[...]d at Botany.

LEAK, Jonathon
1819—18405: Listed in 1839 as "potter and brickmaker", Market lane,
Elizabeth street. He arrived on a life sentence in 1819. By 1828, he was
a ticket of leave man working as a potter at Brickfield Hill.[...]oad, Granville

LEGGATT, Alfred
Listed as manager of the Gurney Patent Brick Co. in 1892 and
from 1893 to 1896, at the Pheonix[...]

MARTIN, John
1817—1828: He resided in Castlereagh street by 1828.

MARTIN, John S.
1885[...]ER, J.B.
1884 and 1885: Glebe street, Parramatta

MASTERS, o.
In 1893, he was listed as lessee of Gibson's Brick and Tile Works.

MEAD, Charles
187[...]ntil 1895).
The proprietors were Morris Brothers. In 1895, Thomas Pendelberry
was listed as manager, a[...]e Sydney Brick Company
During October or November of 1902, Mr W.H. Nicholls became
manager (lis[...]

John Asche, late of the Warren Brick Company, was the
representative[...]ct and Sherwood;
1889—1894, Pitt row, Prospect

In 1891, the Sydney office was at Darling Harbour. M[...]y), were patternmakers who founded
their business in 1878. In 1888, they had recently completed a double
press brick machine.151 In 1893, they became one of the guarantors
for the Sydney Brick Compan[...]

NEW AUSTRAL BRICK COMPANY
Commenced production in September 1962 at Wallgrove. The company
was managed by AM. Dawes who was the son of the founder and managing
director, W.K. Da[...]

NEW SOUTH WALES B[...]H WALES BRICKMASTERS ASSOCIATION
The 1940 styling of the successors of the Brickmasters Association. Office
12 Castlerea[...]nt

NEWTON, F.J.

It was claimed that F.J. Newton of Newtown, was the first to produce
machine made br[...]let and Smith (as had been claimed
by J. Goodsell of Bowral when writing to the Sydney Morning Herald)[...]ure the patent rights for making dry press bricks in New
South Wales first.155

NEWTON, Joe
Became a produce merchant after the introduction of steam
machinery and was still in business by 1935.156

NEWTOWN BRICKWORKS - see F.[...]ginal works were owned by a Mr Goodsell, an uncle of F.J.
Goodsell and was transferred to him in 1838. It was said that these
brickworks had the distinction of producing the first machine made brick
in New South Wales. A valuable plant was introduced[...]d to have made the first machine made bricks here in 1871, made
from shale.157 The Centennial History of 1888, states that the first
machine bricks were made here in 1869, "the first used in the colony".158
Further work will need to be done to sort out the problem of "firsts",
the available documentary sources being of a fairly poor standard.

The brickworks were take[...]til S. Speare took over. Mrs P. Spears was
listed in 1919. By 1898, J. Charlesworth was manager and Elias J. Harber
in 1899 and 1900.

In 1902, they advertised "Best Common Bricks, Double Pressed,
Plastic, Fancy and Moulded Bricks inof the name, Newtown Brickworks, from 1902-1914.

NICHOLLS, Willwiam H.
Manager of the Excelsior Brickworks in 1899 and of the Metropolitan
Brick Co. Ltd., 1904—1915.

NICHOLSON, R.J.
Secretary of the Carrington Steam Brick Co. during 1893[...]

OAKS STEAM BRICK COMPANY (NEUTRAL[...]86 to at least 1888. It appears that Mr Hayes was in charge of
the practical aspects of the running of the brickworks. 60

Hayes set up the third Gurney tunnel kiln in New South Wales.
It was the first to have any success. The kiln was built on the site of
the later tram/bus depot along Military road, Neu[...]ventually made it a financial failure. The bricks in the
Burney kiln travelled upon trucks though varying intensities of heat until
they emerged ready for use. The gear ([...]machines. The wire cut machine was the first type of machine
introduced to the North Shore. The[...]

PARRAMATTA BRIC[...]almere

PARSONS, Frederick W.
Listed as secretary of the National Brickworks Co. Ltd., 1903—1908.

P[...]k
road, Alexandria
A Harber was listed as manager in 1894, while in 1895, the owners
were listed as: "The Colo[...]

PATRICK, Robert
Listed as secretary of the Vale of Clwyd Brickworks from 1913 to 1915.

PAUL, Willia[...]reet, North Willoughby

PENN, Arthur H.
Secretary of the Carrington Steam Brick Company from 1895-1930[...]anager. Peters
and‘John Morris were both listed in 1894 and the latter solely in 1895.

PETERSHAM BRICKWORKS
1902-1912: Con[...]

PITMAN, S.P.
Secretary of the City Brick Company, 1913 and 1914, as[...]

PURDY
184[...]1886 and 1888. Edward
Latz was listed as manager in 1890.

The Works were designed and built by Humph[...]Gillies. The prospectus was
established by April of 1886 with a capital of £22,000 and shares of £1
each with the proprietor retaining 7,000 shar[...]for
the Works belonged to Gillies and was located in Marrickville.

The bricks were stamped "R + C" an[...]clough was listed as secretary from 1919 to 1928. In 1930,
the company was in liquidation.

REILLY, John
1884: Dobroyd Estate,[...]LLORAN
This partnership applied for a brick lease in Newtown in 1881.166

RICHARDS, James 1851: Pyrmont road

RIG[...]road, Alexandria

RILEY
Riley was elected as one of the founding directors of the Eight
Hours Co—operative Brick, Tile and Pottery Co. Ltd. in 1886.

149

ROFE, T.E.
Listed as the proprietor of the Australian Brick Co. from 1912
to 1914.

ROGERS, David R.
Listed as manager of the Austral Brick Company from 1913 to 1927.

ROGERS, Leonard E.
Listed as manager of the Austral Brick Company from 1928 to 1931.

ROO[...]PANY LIMITED
1891—1893: Joseph street, Rookwood
In 1890, the company was known as the Rookwood Potte[...]essful sanitary contractor after the
introduction of machines.1 3

ROVERY and CONSTABLE
1888: S[...]

In 1894, St Peters' common bricks typically weighed 8 lbs of 9 lbs
1—1/4 ozs and measured 4—1/4x4—1/4x3 inches.169 St Peters' "brown
bricks" were used in the residence of RS. Willis at Lane Cove road at
North Sydn[...]

SAMS, Samuel
1798—1828: In 1828, at the age of 70, he was employed by Robert Browne
at South Hea[...]ames
1822—1828: He was employed at George Innes of Bathurst by 1828.

SARNEVAY, William
1887: Caldwe[...], New
Canterbury road, Petersham
Saywell was born in Nottingham, England in 1837 and arrived in
Sydney in 1848. He was involved in the tobacco business from 1863 and
founded the Ea[...]ny.171

SCHOFIELD, David J.
Manager and secretary of the Croydon Steam Brick Co. Ltd. from
1902[...]

By 1891, there was an estimated amount of clay to last a century
and a damned creek was capable of holding 250,000 gallons of water.
The clay was transported by trollies up an[...]as the red clay was too valuable. It specialized in double pressed
red facing bricks, flooring tiles (said to be better in colour than the French
plain, ornamental and corr[...]manufactured. Ornamental articles were also made of the various kinds
of terracotta. Red bricks were used in the residence of Mr Bruce Smith
at Burradoo. Garden edging tiles c[...]mental roofing tiles were supplied for the turret of
Messrs Paling and Company's new premises in George street. The larger
range of roofing tiles with ridge cresting and terracotta[...]d for the new tramway waiting rooms on
the corner of Elizabeth and Liverpool streets. At the time (1891), the
company was prepared to make all kinds of moulded bricks to any
architect's design. They we[...]were used
for Norman Self's residence at Ashfield in 1888.173 The red roofing tiles _
of the 1881 part of the Granville Public School, came from the[...]

By 1906,[...]Jack
He was known as "Protestant Jack" and worked in the brickyards on the
Waterloo Flats at Al[...]

SPEARE, S.
1902-1916: Proprietor of the Newtown Steam Brickworks. In 1902. he
successfully applied for a tender[...]

STANDSURE BRICK COMPANY

1886—1[...]ed by Thomas Daley, was "re—opened"
on the 25th of August 1886, after new machinery was installed on[...]erizer or grinding pan was said to be the largest in the
Colonies, measuring 9 feet 6 inches in diameter. It weighed 20 tons and
could reduce sto[...]l
was taken from the pan by elevators and buckets of a "Dreyer" principle
carried the material to the loft and deposited it in a large chute which
carried it to the Platt machi[...]conveyed directly
into the kiln.180

The account of Thomas Daley's Works in the Centennial History
of New South Wales 1888, varies only in minor details but mentioned
that the company was formed into a limited liability company in 1887,
consisting of Messrs D. Anderson, James Briely and Edward Lee.[...]mpany were said to have formed the superstructure
of "many of our finest architectural piles".182

The first annual meeting of shareholders took place during July
1888. Mr Edwa[...]he company was doing well,
despite the depression in the building trade. Unalloted shares were offered
to the public to defray the cost of erecting a patent kiln.183

The kiln was completed by July 1891 and a ceremony was arranged
in order to light the Centennial kiln. It was stated that the kiln was built
along the lines of the patent held by the Centennial Brick Ki[...]

T. Daley continued[...]K.'", (1916).

STATE BRICKWORKS

The establishing of a Government brickworks was rejected in the
Legislative Assembly in 1911 but was accepted in 1912. It was desired
that cheap bricks could be h[...]t 30/— per 1,000 against the "Combine's" charge
of 45/- (at the kiln). In 1922, the State Brickworks sold at 55/- against
the private 68/— per 1,000. In 1935, the Steven's Government condemned
the Works[...]ebush were also listed (1920—1924 and curiously in 1952). The
latter years post-1935, have not been[...]was formed by 1915. The brickworks used a formula
of two parts of sand to one of lime with a later addition of 70 per cent
sand (found nearby). Ball and tube mi[...]ring
the brick pressers and submitted to 200 tons of pressure per square inch.
One brick machine could[...]The bricks were
later submitted to steam pressure of 125 pounds per square inch in a
70 feet long cylinder, six feet in diameter for about 8 hours which hardened
the bri[...]hale bricks and be able to withstand 2,454 pounds of pressure per
square inch.185

STAUNTON, Thomas
18[...]OKES, Sarah
1817—1828: By 1828, she was working in Parramatta.

STONE, N. — see Morris

STO[...]

This name with the word "Ltd." was adopted in Sands' for the years
1919 and 1920.

STRATHFIELD[...]eld
Products: "Common and Open Kiln Facing Bricks of Best Quality,
Double Pressed Plain and Fancy. Moulded bricks in Stock and to Order,
Terracotta Air Bricks". (1906[...]street, Marrickville
Stuntz arrived from Germany in 1858 and managed Johnston Brothers
from about 187[...]ery was based on his patent.

STURT, H.P.
Manager of the Railway Brickyards, as listed in 1886.

STYLES and YATES
1844 and 1845: Stanmore,[...]They bought the National Brickworks at Thornleigh in 1935 and
eventually expanded in Eastwood, Burwood and South Ashfield.

SUN[...]

This company was registered early in January of 1893. The Company
was formed so as to standardize the quality of bricks and to regulate
the trade generally. It wa[...]ses, according to a contemporary source. The
list of guarantors who registered in January 1893 were: Warne Brothers
and Company; A.[...]allagher; and E. Vickery and Sons. (The inclusion
of the office address of 114a Pitt street suggests membership).

SYDNEY BR[...]ckville; 1920-1926,
Unwins Bridge road, Sydenham (in 1920 St Peters and "Sydney"); 1927-1932,
Unwins B[...]oked well" at the Sydney
International Exhibition in 1879.187

SYMMON DS
Symmonds was "superintendent" of Bakewell Brothers by 1894 .

SYMONS
One of the elected founding directors of the Eight Hours
Co—operative Brick, Tile and Pottery Co. Ltd. in 1886.

SYMONS, 0.G.
Symons was listed as manager of Goodlet and Smith's Junction
Brickworks at Prospe[...]and St Peters

The company was originally formed in 1876 by J.F. Tabrett and
brickmaking was but a si[...]. Before 1888, they
purchased Mr Edwards interest in a sandstock brickyard situated close
to Tabrett and Draper's in King street, Newtown. An adjoining property
was p[...]o the Edwards property. A steam brickmaking
plant of the semi dry process was established. Up to 1888, the bricks
were burned in open Scotch kilns but plans were underway[...]

TAVERS, G.S. (junior)
Secretary and manager of the Liverpool Steam Brickworks Co.
Ltd.

TAYLOR,[...]bert
1821—1828: A leading brickmaker, with many in his employ, at South
Head road

TEMPE BRICK and T[...]1914 to 1919.

THOMAS, C.W.
Listed as the manager of the National Brickworks Co. Ltd. in 1915.

THOMAS, George
1911-1920: Passefield stree[...]the National Brickworks. The
Works were announced in the Cumberland Argus on 04:10:1902 to be
opened in the area known as "Dartford Park" and work was to begin
in October. A John Hardy 16 chamber kiln was completed by May 1903,
Scotch kilns were used before that. In 1935, the Works were sold (by
which time a second[...]and Investment Company Limited. It was re—sold in 1938 to the
Brickworks Limited.

The Brickworks ceased operations in September 1975 and in 1980
the area was acquired by Hornsby Shire Council who leased the pit as
a dump. The last traces of buildings were demolished by late 1984.

Large Platt machines were used (made by Foster and Sons of St
Peters), for ordinary bricks but a pate[...]

John Try, builder and contractor, was born in Middlesex, England
in 1856. He arrived in Australia in 1879 and commenced work as a builder
and contractor. By 1888, the list of buildings erected by him included:
The New South[...]e and Company's Warehouse and the part
completion of St Mary's cathedral).

To minimise on price fluct[...]a store quarry
at Randwick a steam joinery works in Castlereagh street and a brickyard
in Granville.191

TRY‘S BRICKWORKS
1890-1897: 180[...]1887 to 1894

and was suceeded by William Coulson in 1895.

TURNER, John
1867—1889: 1867, Waterloo[...]a and

Brickfields, Alexandria

Turner had a kiln in the vicinity of Huntley street and Mitchell
road, Alexandria (as[...]MPANY
1928—1930: 34 Martin Place (office)

VALE of CLWYDD BRICKWORKS
1913 and 1940: Mutual Life Building, Martin Place

VALE of CLWYDD D.M. and BRICK COMPANY LIMITED
1915-1937:[...]932, 14 Martin
Place
Robert Patrick was secretary in 1915.

VALE of CLWYDD nad BRICK COMPANY LIMITED
1919—19[...]

VERNON, Donald
Manager of the Excelsior Brickworks in 1891 (as listed)

VICKERY, E. (Vulcan Brickworks)[...]d, Alexandria
Bricks were stamped ”E.V. (St S." in a large panel.
A boiler explosion occurred[...]

WARNE BROTHERS
1893: One of the guarantors of the Sydney Brick Company (not listed
in Sands‘).

WARREN BRICK COMPANY
1890—1962: 189[...]90 to 1911. The brickworks adjoined the
brickyard of Tye Brothers.

Curlewis was thought to be the fir[...]ommon open kiln (O.K.), bricks, he set the bricks in the usual scotch
kiln, setting and burning them to obtain the desired colour on the surface
of the brick. O.K. facing bricks were later burned in down draught kilns
connected to smoke stacks, or chimneys. Curlewis made a great success
in producing bricks of various shades of colour, ranging from light reds
to black for faci[...]k was responsible for
the decline and replacement of double pressed plastic facing bricks.196

Warren[...]nt open kiln bricks" were used for the
elevations of three shops in George street for Fitzwilliam Wentworth
of Brickfield Hill in 1893.197

Mr John Ashe had worked for the Warren[...]tan
Brick Company.198

After 1911, the Works were in joint ownership, styled as "Bakewell
and Curlewis[...]Waterloo

This Company began calling for tenders in January 1902 for the
erection of kilns, stacks etc. The architect was W. Kenwood and the
builder R. Hitchin. The chief work was the erection of a 16 chambered
kiln.19é The Company applied for[...]0,000 machine made
bricks for £2/3/— per 1,000 in June 1902.200

James Edwards was listed as manage[...]as a special key
brick for the kilns themselves.

In 1919, the word "Fire" was added to the Com[...]

W[...]orking at Liverpool. This is not the Absalom
West of early publishing fame. He was returned to Government service
in 1826 for selling spirits without a licence.201

W[...], Dean street, Druitt Town.

Thomas West was born in Sydney in 1838. He was first engaged
in contracting but around 1863, he began making bricks and employed
about 60 men. In 1888, he devoted his attention to road contractin[...]George street (office)

WESTWOOD, Samuel
Manager of the Hopetown Brickworks from 1902

WEYNTON, H.O.
Listed as one of the proprietors of the North Sydney Brick and
Tile Company fr[...]

WHITEMAN, J.R.
Listed as secretary of the Croydon Steam Brick Co. Ltd. from
1915 to 192[...]Thomas Street's at Sussex street.

WILEY, J.
One of the elected founding directors of the Eight Hours
Co—operative Brick, Tile and Pottery Co. Ltd., in 1886. He was also
secretary of the Punchbowl Brick and Tile Co. in 1915.

WILKIE, W.
1877: Waterloo Estate, A[...]

WILLIAMS, Thomas
Manager of the Ryde Brick Co. 1912—1914, (as listed).

WIL[...].

WILLING, Daniel
1792-1828: By 1828, at the age of 82, he was a brickmaker at Parramatta.

WILLOUGHB[...](2—1/2 million) were used for the
Lands Office in 1891.206

Woodley was a manager of St Peters Patent Dry Brick Company
until 1899, when he retired after 26 years. He was also a proprietor of
the Federal Brickworks which he founded, as well[...]ille railway station.208
He was listed as manager of the St Peters Patent Dry Brick Co. from
19[...]

A part requirement, BA(Hons), 1976. (Copy held in Ms J.M. Birmingham's
office, Department of Archaeology, University).

1963—1965.

Incomplete runs are kept by the Society of Aust. Genealogists, the General
Post Office Sydne[...]was made by Aedeen Cremin and a copy may be found in Fisher
Library, University of Sydney.

Though the Telephone Directory of 1919 does use their name.

1828 Census. This volu[...]V.J. Varman, The Marseille or French Pattern Tile in Australasia. (Covering
the Marseille makers, Wund[...]on Goodlet 6: Smith etc).
R.V.J. Varman Gazetteer of Potters and Tile makers of Sydney 1788—1901
[paste book, manuscript form]. R.V.J. Varman Gazetteer of Sydney Roofing
Tile Manufacturers 1919—1940s? [ca.1980 manuscript held by Ms J.M.
Birmingham, Department of Archaeologlfi University of Sydney]. R.V.J.
Varman, Gazetteer of Brickmakers, Tilemakers and Potteries of Australia
and New Zealand 1919-1956, [organized b[...]erings", James Nangle — Engineering Association of NSW, Paper
08:08:1895, p.4.

The Echo, 14:08:1890[...]828 Census. M.R. Sainty and K.A. Johnson, Library of Australian History,
1980.

CPJA, November 1935, p[...]Tench, Watkin. Sydney's First Four Years. Library of Australian History,
1979 edition, pp.196 and 197,[...]vol.XII, 1926, p.359.

Collins, David. An Account of the English Colony at New South Wales, vol[...]

In 1894, it was listed at Alexander street, Alexandr[...]R.V.J. Varman, Unpublished Manuscript on the life of James Bloodworth.
CPJA, November 1935, p.13.

BEJ[...], p.71.

Austin, LL. Thornleigh Brickworks. Essay in Historical Archaeology, University
of Sydney, 1980.

Wentworth Papers, Dip. 172, M.L.
C[...], p.24.

Noah, William. Journal: Voyage to Sydney in the Hillsborough, 1798—1799.
Library of Australian History, Sydney, 1978, p.63.

Catalogue of the Natural and Industrial Products of NSW Exhibited in the
Australian Museum by the Paris Exhibition Com[...].

CPJA, November 1935, p.13.

Dunlop, E. Harvest of the Years: The History of Burwood, 1794—1974, p.92.
NSWCRP, 26:05:1903, p.83.

See CPJA, November 1935, p.13.

Centennial History of NSW, 1888, HE, p.102.

CPJA, November 1935, p.15.

Official Record of the Sydney International Exhibition, 1879, Sydney[...]Ibid., December 1935, p.22.

Centennial History of NSW, 1888, Mb, p.98.
CPJA, January 1936, p.25.

A[...].25.

CPJA, 01:11:1935, p.12.

Centennial History of NSW, 1888, IIb, p.90.
HRA, VOLX, pp.639 and 640.

171

Centennial History of NSW, 1888, IIb, p.7.

Holsted, A. Mrs. The Late H[...]3 unpaginated.

Ibid.

Chubb, W. Jubilee Souvenir of the Municipality of Newtown, 1912, p.136.
Norman, L. Historical Notes[...]and CPJA, November 1935, p.13.

Jervis, J. Story of Dlmdas, 1939, p.11.

NSWCRP, 09:10:1902; CPJA, November 1935, p.13.

Official Record of the Sydney International Exhibition, op.cit., p.2[...]6, p.15.

CPJA, November 1935, p.15.

Cyclopaedia of New South Wales, 1907, p.91.

CPJA, November 1935, p.13.

‘ Centennial History of NSW, 1888, IIb, p.98.

CPJA, November 1935, p.13.[...]36.

Franklyn, H. Mortimer. A Glance at Australia in 1880, pp.368-370.
CPJA, November 1935, p.15.

Hol[...]Australia, 12:04:1916, p.161.

Centennial History of NSW, 1888, IIb, p.90.

Ibid., p.90; Smith, J.D. Diamond Jubilee Souvenir of the Municipality of
Newtown, 1862—1922, p.78; W. and F. Ford, Sydne[...]November 1935, pp.13 and 15.

Centennial History of NSW, 1888, IIb, p.90.

Rees, ’1‘. Historic Ca[...]e bricks broke their
trowels.

Centennial History of NSW, 1888, IIb, p.90.

CPJA, November 1935, p.15.[...]and 4; CPJA, August 1947, p.3.
Centennial History of NSW, 1888, Kb, p.90.

ABCN, 30:05:1891, p.[...]

115. Minutes and Proceedings of the Engineering Association of NSW, vol.VIII,
1892/1893, p.40.

116. Centennial History of NSW, 1888, IIb, p.96.
117. Ibid., p.129.

118. JRAHS, vol.XIX, part 2, 1933, p.134.

119. Centennial History of NSW, 1888, Nb, p.96.
120. CPJA, November 1935, p.13.

121, Eardley, G. The Early History of Wolli Creek Valley. St George Historical
Society, Book 7, p.8.

122. Centennial History of NSW, 1888, IIb, p.96.
123. Ibid.

124. Descent, S[...]Ibid., 21:07:1894, p.18.

134. Centennial History of NSW, 1888, IIb, p.101.
135. The Echo, 07:08:1890, p.32.

136. Centennial History of NSW, 1888 IIb, p.101.
137. Ibid., p.99.

138. Wen[...]bid., 14:11:1902, p.175.

151. Centennial History of NSW, 1888, IIb, pp.9 and 10.
152. Wentwort[...]

Norman, op.cit., p.21.

Centennial History of NSW, 1888, IIb, p.90.

Holden, E.A. The History of the Brick, Tile and Clay Products Industries
in Australia. Mangorite Calendar, 1935, unpaginated.

Note, T.Q. Partridge's Machine Brickmaking in NSW, late 19205, p.3.
Partridge, op.cit., p.3; an[...]18.

Ibid., 11:03:1893, p.93.

Centennial History of NSW, 1888, IIb, p.7.

This information was taken[...], p.87 and 08:07:1902, p.106.

Centennial History of NSW, 1888, Mb, p.7.

Australasian Ironmonger, Oct[...]1.

Ibid., 30:07:1887, p.189.

Centennial History of NSW, 1888, Kb, p.98.

ABCN, 14:07:1888, p.29.

Ib[...]5.

CPJA, December 1935, p.23.

Technical Gazette of NSW, vol.5, part 2, pp.117 and 118.
Official Record of the Sydney International Exhibition, 1879, op.cit., p.126.
Centennial History of NSW, 1888, Vol.2, Biographical Section.

Austin,[...].

CPJA, November 1935, p.13.

Centennial History of NSW, 1888, Vol.2, Biographical Section.
Anon. Ale[...]id.

BEJANZ, 03:01:1891, p.37.
Centennial History of NSW, 1888, Ilb, p.96.
CPJA, November 1935, p.13.

Australian Encyclopaedia, The Grolier Society of Australia Pty Ltd, 1963,
vol.8, p.244.

Centennial History of NSW, 1888, IIb, p.109.
Tench, op.cit., pp.[...]

z

Fly 4 Rn/lrl‘xl/hrr'lur lunar,

in!!! ur‘ I?”
u . e a a‘ ,3 I;

I’lulr Roller

I'nA/mh..lumzJ.1.lu-»/.; M," In Law/"M ”my, km um, 1.. 1cm." amp/hm» Aw, Ereww’ 1"' I?

116. Rees' Book 3, Plate V of Iron Manufacture.

The basic method in the manufacture of nail rods was to reduce puddled
iron to flat bars[...].2 These flat bars were passed
hot through a pair of slitting rollers which resulted in several small square sectioned
rods,3 usually between three to six rods.4 The earliest recorded introduction of
the manufacture of prepared nail rods, or "slit" rods, dates back to the latter
half of the sixteenth century when a German, by the name of Shutz, introduced
slitting mills to England.5 Slitting mills were set up in iron marks around Dudley
and Broomsg'rove from 16[...]Foley is credited to have been the first to do so in this area7 which
was to remain the focus of hand wrought nail production for more than 300 ye[...]provements were soon made to the basic principles of slitting and to the power
used in operating the slitting machines. In 1606, Sir Davis Bulmer, secured a patent,
"for a machine for cutting nail—rods by water power".9 In 1618, Clement Dawbeny,
obtained a patent improving on Bulmer's patent in the area of wastage.10 These
early patents, if not useful in detail, indicate a demand for nail rod iron, thou[...]such as hoop iron.11

Before the late 17505 most of the flat bars, from which the nail rods were
spli[...]ly more

power was needed to activate the hammers of the earlier process.13 The cheapest

form of iron was used, made in puddling furnaces.14 The more expensive hammering[...]eved that the rolling process
enclosed impurities in the iron, whereas the hammering process expelled[...]soon as they
became available.16

The difference in the quality of the iron used may indicate an earlier or
later da[...]lete by 1788. Nail rods are unlikely to be useful in dating as they are too
much altered during the na[...]hand wrought process depended on a regular supply of nail rods. The
work was not done in factories but was rather a cottage industry and as such,
men, women and children were involved in all the processes of nail manufacture.17
Small workshops or sheds sufficed and were generally attached to the dwelling
of the nail maker, or nailor,18 and his family.19

T[...]most invariably worked for employers called "nail masters",
these supplied the nail rods. The nail master paid for the quantity of nails by
weight2O in money or barter and the nails were stored in his storehouse for
distribution.“

The nailor usually specialized in a particular class of nails which resulted
in a superior nail and rapid production;22 the maker of horseshoe nails or the maker
of tacks rarely or never making those of other varieties such as "rose" or "clasp"
nails.23

The usual size of the workshop was about 9 feet x 10 feet, rarely l[...]r "forges",24 typically had one door
and a couple of unglazed windows.25

The workshop contained a pair of bellows, a small anvil mounted on a low

b[...]

The tools of the nailor’s workshop were thus few and specialized; a hammer,
a swage and sometimes a pair of tweezers.

The hammer used came in larger and smaller sizes, depending on the size
of the nails being produced; the average hammer weighed about two pounds.42
The common form was as the frustum of a cone, though the narrower end, which
was the face ofin the size and shape of the handle, the weight of the hammer head and
degree of slope on the face of the hammer — all according to the inclination of
the individual nailor.45 Nails requiring speciall[...]y a mechanical hammer which had a die
on the face of the hammer, but this was a later nineteenth centu[...]the red hot nail,
point first.48 The upper parts of the holes were the size of the shank of the nail,
excluding the thickest part of the nail which was to be formed into the head.49
The holes were located in knob—like swells of metal at each end on the upper side
of the- tool and were countersunk to correspond with the head of the nail.50 There